第一篇：水利专业英语翻译部分

Lesson 1 importance of water 水的重要性

Water is best known and most abundant of all chemical compounds occurring in relatively pure form on the earth’s surface.Oxygen, the most abundant chemical element, is present in combination with hydrogen to the extent of 89 percent in water.Water covers about three fourths of the earth's surface and permeates cracks of much solid land.The polar regions are overlaid with vast quantities of ice, and the atmosphere of the earth carries water vapor in quantities from 0.1 percent to 2 percent by weight.It has been estimated that the amount of water in the atmosphere above a square mile of land on a mild summer day is of the order of 50,000 tons.在地球表面以相对纯的形式存在的一切化合物中，水是人们最熟悉的、最丰富的一种化合物。在水中，氧这种最丰富的化学元素与氢结合，其含量多达89%。水覆盖了地球表面的大约3/4的面积，并充满了陆地上的许多裂缝。地球的两极被大量的冰所覆盖，同时大气也挟带有占其重量0.1%～2%的水蒸气。据估计，在温暖的夏日，每平方英里陆地上空大气中的水量约为5万吨。

All life on earth depends upon water, the principal ingredient of living cells.The use of water by man, plants, and animals is universal.Without it there can be no life.Every living thing requires water.Man can go nearly two months without food, but can live only three or four days without water.地球上所有的生命都有赖于水而存在，水是活细胞的基本组分（要素）。人类、植物和动物都得用水。没有水就没有生命。每一种生物都需要水。人可以接近两个月不吃食物而仍能活着，但不喝水则只能活三四天。

In our homes, whether in the city or in the country, water is essential for cleanliness and health.The average American family uses from 65,000 to 75,000 gallons of water per year for various household purposes.在我们的家庭中，无论是在城市还是农村，水对于卫生和健康来说都是必不可少的。美国家庭的年平均用水量达6.5～7.5万加仑。

Water can be considered as the principal raw material and the lowest cost raw material from which most of our farm produces is made.It is essential for the growth of crops and animals and is a very important factor in the production of milk and eggs.Animals and poultry, if constantly supplied with running water, will produce more meat, more milk, and more eggs per pound of food and per hour of labor.水可以被认为是最基本的和最廉价的原料。我们的农产品，大部分都是由它构成的。水是农作物和动物生长的要素，也是奶类和蛋类生产的一个很重要的因素。动物和家禽，如果用流动的水来喂养，那么每磅饲料和每个劳动小时会生产出更多的肉、奶和蛋。

For example, apples are 87% water.The trees on which they grow must have watered many times the weight of the fruit.Potatoes are 75% water.To grow an acre of potatoes tons of water is required.Fish are 80% water.They not only consume water but also must have large volumes of water in which to live.Milk is 88% water.To produce one quart of milk a cow requires from 3.5 to

5.5 quarts of water.Beef is 77% water.To produce a pound of beef an animal must drink many times that much water.If there is a shortage of water, there will be a decline in farm production, just as a shortage of steel will cause a decrease in the production of automobiles.例如，苹果含87%的水分，苹果树就必须吸收比苹果多许多倍的水分；土豆含75%的水分，那么种植每英亩土豆就需要若干吨水；牛奶含水量为88%，为了生产每夸脱牛奶，母

牛需要3.5～5.5 夸脱的水；牛肉含77%的水，为生产1磅牛肉牛必须饮用许多磅水。如果缺水，就会使农产品减产，就像缺乏钢会引起汽车产量下降一样。

In addition to the direct use of water in our homes and on the farm, there are many indirect ways in which water affects our lives.In manufacturing, generation of electric power, transportation, recreation, and in many other ways, water plays a very important role.水除了直接为我们的家庭和农场利用外，它还以许多间接的方式对我们的生活产生影响。在制造、发电、运输、娱乐以及其他许多行业，水都起着很重要的作用。

Our use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing population.Already there are acute shortages of both surface and underground waters in many locations.Careless pollution and contamination of our streams, lakes, and underground sources has greatly impaired the quality of the water which we do have available.It is therefore of utmost importance for our future that good conservation and sanitary measures be practiced by everyone.我们对水的利用随人口的增长而迅速增加。在许多地方，无论地面水或地下水都已经严重短缺了。由于任意污染河流、湖泊和地下水源，已经大大地损害了人们能够利用的水的水质。因此，人人有责对水采取保护措施和卫生措施，这对于我们人类的未来是极端重要的。

Lesson 18 evapotranspiration 腾发量

Evaporation is the transfer of water from the liquid to the vapor state.Transpiration is the process by which plants remove moisture from the soil and release it to the air as vapor.More than half of the precipitation which reaches the land surfaces of the earth is returned to the atmosphere by the combined processes, evapotranspiration.In arid regions evaporation may consume a large portion of the water stored in reservoir.蒸发是水从液态变成气态的过程。蒸腾是植物将从土壤中吸收的水分以汽体的形式释放到大气中去的过程。到达地面的降雨有一半以上以蒸发与蒸腾相结合的形式─腾发，回到大气中去。在干旱地区，蒸发可以消耗掉大量的水库存水。

The rate of evaporation from a water surface is proportional to the difference between the vapor pressure at the surface and vapor pressure in the overlying air(Dalton ’s law).In still air, the vapor-pressure difference soon becomes small, and evaporation is limited by the rate of diffusion of vapor away from the surface.Turbulence caused by wind and thermal convection transports the vapor from the surface layer and permits evaporation to continue.水面蒸发率与水表面水气压与上层空气大气压的差成比例（道尔顿定律）。在静止的空气中，气压差不久就变得较小，蒸发受水面水汽弥散速率的限制。由风引起的扰动和热对流将表层的水变为水汽，（从而）使蒸发得以持续下去。

Transpiration is essentially the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.Rates of transpiration will, therefore, be about the same as rates of evaporation from a free water surface if the supply of water to the plant is not limited.Estimated free water evaporation may, therefore, be assumed to indicate the potential evapotranspiration from a vegetated soil surface.蒸腾从本质上是指水分从植物的叶表面的蒸发，因此，如果植物供水不受限制，蒸腾速率大约等于自由水面的蒸发率。因此，估计的自由水面蒸发量可以假定代表有植物的土壤表面的潜在腾发量。

The total quantity of transpiration by plants over a long period of time is limited primarily by the availability of water.In areas of abundant rainfall well distributed through the year, all plants will transpire at about the same rates and the differences in total will result from the differences in

the length of the growing seasons for the various species.Where water supply is limited and seasonal, depth of roots becomes very important.Here, shallow-rooted grasses wilt and die when the surface soil becomes dry while deep-rooted trees and plants will continue to withdraw water from lower soil layers.The deeper-rooted vegetation will transpire a greater amount of water in the course of a year.The rate of transpiration is not materially reduced by decreases in soil moisture until the wilting point of the soil is reached.整个长时期的植物蒸腾总量主要受水的可获得量限制。在雨量充足且年内分布均匀的地区，所有植物都将以大致相同的速度蒸腾，蒸腾总量的不同是由于各种植物生育期长短不同而引起的。对于供水受限制和季节性（降雨）的地方，植物根系的深度是很重要的。在这样的地区，当表土变干时，浅根系的草凋萎后便死亡，而根深的树木和作物将继续从深层土壤中吸取水分。深根植物在一年蒸腾过程中将蒸腾掉大量的水分。在土壤含水量达到凋萎点之前，植物的蒸腾速度实质上不会因土壤水分的减少而减少。

Evapotranspiration, sometimes called consumptive use or total evaporation describes the total water removed from an area by transpiration and by evaporation from soil, snow, and water surfaces.An estimate of the actual evapotranspiration from an area can be made by subtracting measured outflow from the area(surface and subsurface)from the total water supply(precipitation, surface and subsurface inflow, and imported water).Change in surface and underground storage must be included when significant.腾发量有时被称为耗水量或总蒸腾量，表示某一区域植物蒸腾、土壤蒸发、雪蒸发和自由水面蒸发的总水量。某一区域上的实际腾发量可以从本区总的供水量（包括降雨、地面和地下流入量以及引入的水量）减去从本区实测流出量（地表和地下流出量）来进行估算。当地表和地下储存量的变化显著时必须包括在腾发量之内。

Several attempts have been made to relate evapotranspiration to climatological data through simple equations such as用最简单的方程表示腾发量与气象数据之间的关系，人们已经进行了许多尝试，如：

Where: is the consumptive use in feet and is the sum of the growing season maximum temperatures less 32ºF.With in centimeters and temperatures in degrees Celsius, Eq.(18.1)becomes式中： 表示耗水量，单位是英尺； 代表植物生长季节最高温度减去32ºF的累计值。当 以厘米为单位，温度由ºC表示时，方程(18.1)变为

Such formulas agree fairly well with average values of annual evapotranspiration over a period of years, but it clear that the evaporative process is too complex to be well defined by a simple temperature function.这些公式与多年某一阶段的年平均腾发量吻合良好。但由于蒸发过程的复杂性，很显然，我们不可能用简单的温度函数去很好的定义腾发量。

As indicated before, the potential evapotranspiration from an area can be estimated from the free water evaporation.Actual evapotranspiration equals the potential value as limited by the available moisture.On a natural watershed with many vegetal species, it is reasonable to assume that evapotranspiration rates do vary with soil moisture since shallow-rooted species will cease to transpire before deeper-rooted species.A moisture-accounting procedure can be established using the continuity equation

如前所述，某一区域的潜在腾发量可以用自由水面腾发量来估算。实际腾发量等于有效水量受限时的潜在腾发量。对于一个有多种植物的自然流域，假设腾发速率确实随土壤水分的变化而变化是合理的。这是因为浅根植物将在深根植物前停止蒸腾。我们可以用连续方程建立水量平衡方程：Where: is precipitation;is surface runoff;is subsurface outflow;is actural

evapotranspiration;is the change in moisture storage.式中： 表示降雨量； 表示地表径流量； 表示地下流出量； 表示实际腾发量； 表示水分储存的变化。is estimated as（可用下式估算：）

Where: is the computed soil moisture storage on any data and is an assumed maximum soil moisture content.A moisture-accounting procedure of this type may be used to calculate runoff as well as estimate evapotranspiration.式中： 表示任何计算的土壤水分储存量； 表示一假定的最大土壤含水量。这个典型的水量平衡方程可用于计算径流量和估算腾发量。

第二篇：专业英语翻译部分

仅供参考！发现错误请及时指出！

15页

Climate plays a very important role in the genesis of a soil.On the global scale, there is an obvious correlation between major soil types and the Koppen climatic classification systems major climate types.At regional and local scales, climate becomes less important in soil formation.Instead, Pedogenesis is more influenced by factors like parent material, topography, vegetation, and time.The two most important climatic variables influencing soil formation are temperature arid moisture.Temperature has direct influence on the weathering of bedrock to produce mineral particles.Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with higher temperatures.Temperature also influences the activity of soil microorganisms, the frequency and magnitude of soil chemical reactions, and the rate of plant growth, moisture levels in most soils are primarily controlled by the addition of water via precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration.If additions of water from precipitation surpass losses from evapotranspiration, moisture levels in a soil tend to be high.If the water loss due to evapotranspiration exceeds inputs from precipitation, moisture levels in a soil tend to be low.High moisture availability in a soil promotes the weathering, of bedrock and sediments, chemical reactions, and plant growth.The availability of moisture also has an influence on soil pH and the decomposition of organic matter.气候在土壤形成过程中扮演了重要角色。从全球尺度来看，主要的土壤分类和科彭气候分类法确定的主要的气候类型有明星的联系。在区域和地方性的范围内，气候显得不是那么重要。取而代之的是母质，地形，植被和时间。温度和湿度是影响土壤形成的两个重要的变量。温度直接影响基岩风化产生矿物颗粒。温度越高，基岩转化为矿物颗粒的比例越大。温度同样影响土壤微生物的活跃度，土壤化学反应的频率和数量，植物生长的比例。大多数的土壤湿度是由降水减去蒸发作用控制的。如果降水超过蒸发作用消耗的水，土壤湿度就会很高。如果降水少于蒸发作用，土壤的湿度就会变低。土壤内大量的可用的水气会提升母岩温度和沉积，化学反应，还有植物生长。微生物也会影响土壤的PH和有机物的分解。

Living organisms have a role in a number of processes involved in pedogenesis including organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling.Under equilibrium conditions, vegetation and soil are closely linked with each other through nutrient cycling.The cycling of nitrogen and carbon in soils is almost completely controlled by the presence of animals and plants.Through litterfall and the process of decomposition, organisms add humus and nutrients to the soil which influences soil structure and fertility.Surface vegetation also protects the upper layers of a soil from erosion by way of binding the soils surface and reducing the speed of moving wind and water across the ground surface.成土作用过程中，生命体参与了其中的有机物积累，属性混合和生物化学养分的循环。在平衡条件下，植被和土壤通过彼此的养分循环紧密联系在一起。土壤中的碳氮循环几乎都需要动物和植物的参与控制。通过落叶和分解过程，微生物把腐殖质和营养成分带给土壤，也因此影响了土壤的结构和肥力。表层植物也可以固定表层土壤来保护上层的土壤不被途经的风和水带走。

Parent material refers to the rock and mineral materials from which the soils develop.These materials can be derived from residual sediment due to the weathering of bedrock or from sediment transported into an area by way of the erosive forces of wind, water, or ice.Pedogenesis is often faster on transported sediments because the weathering of parent material usually takes a long period of time.The influence of parent material on pedogenesis is usually related to soil texture, soil chemistry, and nutrient cycling.母质是指土壤形成所在的岩石和矿物质。岩床的风化或者由侵蚀力（比如风，水，冰）带来的沉积物都可以变为形成母质需要的物质。外来的沉积物形成的成土作用通常都比较快，因为风化母质需要很长一段时间。母质在成土过程中的影响就是它参与了土壤的质地，土壤化学和养分循环。

The distribution of precipitation on the Earth's surface is generally controlled by the absence or presence of mechanisms that lift air masses to cause saturation.It is also controlled by the amount of water vapor held in the air, which is a function of air temperature.A figure is presented that illustrates global precipitation patterns.气体上升聚集达到饱和，是否存在这种饱和基本上决定了地球表面降水的分布。同时，大气中包含水蒸气的含量也影响了降水，水蒸气的含量是由大气温度控制的。下面的一组数字将阐明全球降水模式。

41页

Evaporation and transpiration are the two processes that move water from the Earth’s surface to its atmosphere.Evaporation is movement of free water to the atmosphere as a gas.It requires large amounts of energy.Transpiration is the movement of water through a plant to the atmosphere.Scientists use the term evapotranspiration to describe both processes.In general, the following four factors control the amount of water entering the atmosphere via these two processes: energy availability;the humidity gradient away from the evaporating surface;the wind speed immediately above the surface;and water availability.Agricultural scientists sometimes refer to two types of evapotranspiration: Actual Evapotranspiration and Potential Evapotranspiration.The growth of crops is a function of water supply.If crops experience drought, yields are reduced.Irrigation can supply crops with supplemental water.By determining both actual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration a farmer can calculate the irrigation water needs of their crops.蒸发作用和蒸腾作用是把水从地表带到大气的最主要的两个过程。蒸发是空余的水变成蒸汽进入大气的移动过程。这个过程需要大量的能量。蒸腾作用是水通过植物进入大气。科学家用蒸散作用来统称这两个过程。通常情况下，下面四个因素影响了这两个过程：可利用的能量、蒸发表面的温度梯度、蒸发表面即时风速、可用的水。农业科学家认为蒸散作用有两种方式：实际的蒸散和潜在的蒸散。农作物生长是供水的过程。如果作物经历了干旱，就会导致减产。灌溉可以给作物提供附加的水。如果知道了实际蒸散和潜在蒸散的量，农民就可以计算作物灌溉需要的水量。

Infiltration is the movement of water from precipitation into the soil layer.Infiltration varies both spatially and temporally due to a number of environmental factors.After a rain, infiltration can create a condition where the soil is completely full of water.This condition is, however, only short-lived as a portion of this water quickly drains(gravitational water)via the force exerted on the water by gravity.The portion that remains is called the field capacity.In the soil, field capacity represents a film of water coating all inpidual soil particles to a thickness of 0.06 mm.The soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 mm(known as capillary water)can be removed from the soil through the processes of evaporation and transpiration.Both of these processes operate at the surface.Capillary action moves water from one area in the soil to replace losses in another area(biggest losses tend to be at the surface because of plant consumption and evaporation).This movement of water by capillary action generally creates a homogeneous concentration of water throughout the soil profile.Losses of water stop when the film of water around soil particles reaches 0.0002 mm.Water held from the surface of the soil particles to 0.0002 mm is essentially immobile and can only be completely removed with high temperatures(greater than 100 degrees Celsius).Within the soil system, several different forces influence the storage of water.渗透是水从降水进入土壤层的过程。渗透由于一些自然的因素会发生空间的和暂时的变化。下完雨之后，渗透会形成一个土壤完全充满水的情况。但是这种情况只是暂时的，一部分雨水会由于重力作用排出。留下的那一部分雨水被称为土地含水能力。土地含水能力展示给我们一个水薄膜，在这个薄膜里，所有相互独立的土壤粒子被厚度仅仅为0.06毫米的水包裹着。土壤中0.0002到0.06毫米的水都可以通过蒸散作用排出。所以这些过程都发生在表面。毛细作用把水从一个地方搬运到另一个流失水的地方（最大的水流失应该就是植物表面的蒸腾和蒸发）。这种毛细作用可以报证土壤内的水的浓度是均匀的。土壤粒子包被的水薄膜到0.0002毫米时，水就停止流失。这时的水本质上除了超过100摄氏度的情况是不可移动的。在土壤系统内部，这几种力量影响了水的短缺度。

Population Structure / Population Pyramids

The population structure for an area shows the number of males and females within different age groups in the population.This information is displayed as an age-sex or population pyramid.Population pyramids of LEDCs typically have a wide base and a narrow top.This represents a high birth rate and high death rate.Population pyramids of MEDCs typically have a roughly equal distribution of population throughout the age groups.The top obviously gets narrower as a result of deaths.Population pyramids for every country in the world can be found here.Population pyramids are used to show the structure of the population according to age and sex.一个地方的人口结构告诉我们该地不同年龄段男性和女性的人口数量。这些信息展示出了一个年龄-性别或者人口数量的金字塔。发展中国家的人口金字塔通常有很大的根基和很窄的塔尖。这体现了这些国家的高出生率和高死亡率。发达国家的人口金字塔在不同年龄段大概是均匀分布的。塔尖由于死亡的原因会稍微窄一些。世界上所有国家的人口金字塔在这里都可以找到。人口金字塔通常用来展示人口在年龄和性别上的结构。

56页

The increase of greenhouse gases are the primary causes of the human-induced component of warming.Because of burning of fossil fuels, land clearing and agriculture, the amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have increased by more than a third.Changes this large have historically taken thousands of years, but are now happening over the course of decades.温室气体增加的主要原因是人类-诱导气温的上升。因为化石燃料的燃烧，大地没有植被以及农业，大气中二氧化碳和其他温室气体的排放量已经上升了1/3。经历这么大的变化曾经需要数千年，但是现在只在近十年内就完成了。

57页

Sea Level Rising.With the melt of ice cap and glaciers, sea level has rised 0.8 to 3.0 millimeter.With large numbers of cities located in coastal areas, this causes serious problems.Beach erosion takes place, particularly on steep banks.Wetlands are lost.This is a picture of Shanghai at present, while this may be the picture of Shanghai several years later.Another serious problem is the threat of salt water intruding into underground fresh water in coastal areas.Millions of people will be forced to leave their homes and homelands.海平面上升。随着冰盖和冰川的融化，海平面已经上升了0.8到3.0毫米。由于很多城市坐落在沿海地区，这就可能带来灾难性的问题。海岸侵蚀开始出现，尤其是在陡峭的海岸。湿地逐渐消失。这正是上海现在发生的，也可能是几年以后上海出现的景象。另一个严重的问题是盐水侵入沿海地区的底下淡水。数以万计的人民不得不背井离乡。

59页

They dominate the country in influence and are the national focal-point.Their sheer size and activity becomes a strong pull factor, bringing additional residents to the city and causing the primate city to become even larger and more disproportional to smaller cities in the country.However, not every country has a primate city, as you'll see from the list below.他们通过影响力支配这个国家，是整个国家的焦点。他们的规模大小和活动变成一股强大的推动力，带来额外的居民，让这些首位城市变得更大，以至于跟国内的其他小城市相比有些不协调。但是，并不是所有国家都有这样一个首位城市，你可以从下面的表里看出来。

Some scholars define a primate city as one that is larger than the combined populations of the second and third ranked cities in a country.This definition does not represent true primacy, however, as the size of the first ranked city is not disproportionate to the second.一些学者定义首位城市就是比排名第二和第三位城市人口总和还要多的城市。但是这个定义没有体现从城市规模的角度分析，排名前两位的城市也是不成比例的，所以并不被认可。

The law can be applied to smaller regions as well.For example, California's primate city is Los Angeles, with a metropolitan area population of 16 million, which is more than double the San Francisco metropolitan area of 7 million.Even counties can be examined with regard to the Law of the Primate City.这个法则可以用到小的区域。举个例子，加州的首位城市是洛杉矶，城市人口达到1600万，比旧金山的700高出甚多。甚至村庄也可以用首位城市法则来分析。

69页

Scope of land consolidation schemes（本段蓝字为不确定部分）

Land consolidation has always been regarded as an instrument or entry point for rural development.Early concepts of rural development were virtually the same as agricultural development because of the predominant role of agriculture in rural areas at the time.Improving the agrarian structure was viewed as being identical to maintaining the social viability in rural areas;what was good for the farmers was good for rural areas.An overall objective of early projects was thus to increase the net income from land holdings by increasing the volume of production and decreasing its costs.With this focus on agricultural development, these projects served to consolidate parcels and enlarge holdings and included provisions such as irrigation and drainage infrastructure to improve water management, construction of rural roads, land levelling, soil improvement measures and changes to land use such as converting agriculturally inferior land into forest land or wetlands.土地合并经常被认为是发展农村的一个手段或者切入点。早期的农村发展概念基本上和农业发展一样的，因为那时候的农业生产占据了农村的主导地位。改进农业结构看起来是和保留农村地区社会生存能力一样的事情。对农民好也就是对农村地区好。因此早期项目的总体目标是通过增加产量和减少成本，以此增加从土地获得的净收益。随着注意力转移到农业发展上，这些项目服务于巩固捆绑，增大资产，还这些规定：修建灌溉和排水基础设施来提升用水管理能力，修建农村公路，土地平整，土壤改良措施以及改变土地用途比如说把贫瘠的土地转变为森林或者湿地。

Such agricultural improvements are still essential but rural space is now no longer regarded as one of agricultural production alone.Concepts of rural development have become much broader and have expanded to include increased environmental awareness and a wide range of nonagricultural applications.The emphasis of land consolidation projects has shifted from a focus on restructuring agriculture to one of achieving more efficient multiple use of rural space by balancing the interests of agriculture, landscape, nature conservation, recreation and transportation, especially when land is required for the construction of major roads.这些农业进步仍然是必不可少的，但是现在农村地区不再仅仅是农业生产的区域了。农村发展的概念已经变得更加广阔，已经拓展到包含环境意识和非农业应用的领域。土地合并的项目的重点已经不再只关注农业重组，它上升到通过平衡农业利益，地形，自然保护，娱乐和运输(尤其是需要修建主要干道的时候)来获取最大的利益。

Environmental conditions are being given increasing priority.Roads are being constructed to suit the landscape.Water bodies are being restored, often with buffer zones.Land consolidation projects are also used for the protection of wetlands and to change land use patterns especially in areas endangered by frequent floods or soil erosion.人们把环境情况作为优先考虑。修路需要符合地形。水体被修复，一般都还有缓冲区。土地合并项目经常用于保护湿地，还有改变土地利用模式，特别是在因为频发的洪水和水土流失致使土地濒临消失的地方。

99页

Leakage

The direct income for an area is the amount of tourist expenditure that remains locally after taxes, profits, and wages are paid outside the area and after imports are purchased;these subtracted amounts are called leakage.In most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travelers' expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies(who often have their headquarters in the travelers' home countries), and not to local businesses or workers.In addition, significant amounts of income actually retained at destination level can leave again through leakage.消费者的支出除去税费，利润，支出的工资以及进口所需剩下的一部分，就是旅游目的地的直接收入，也叫做渗漏。在大部分全包价旅游中，旅游者支出的80%付给了航空公司，酒店和其他国际公司（通常在旅游者来源国有分支部门），并不是当地的商店或者工人。此外，大量的达到目标水平的收入一般会经过渗漏再次离开当地。101页

Tourism development and the related rise in real estate demand may dramatically increase building costs and land values.Not only does this make it more difficult for local people, especially in developing countries, to meet their basic daily needs, it can also result in a dominance by outsiders in land markets and in-migration that erodes economic opportunities for the locals, eventually disempowering residents.In Costa Rica, close to 65% of the hotels belong to foreigners.Long-term tourists living in second homes, and the so-called amenity migrants(wealthy or retired people and liberal professionals moving to attractive destinations in order to enjoy the atmosphere and peaceful rhythms of life)cause price hikes in their new homes if their numbers attain a certain critical mass.旅游业的发展和相关切实需要的房地产需求可能戏剧性的促进了建筑造假和土地价值。不止是这些造成了当地居民-特别是在发展中国家-难以得到基本日常所需，还会导致外来者在土地市场和迁移这些对当地人属于经济侵略的领域处于支配地位。在哥斯达黎加，近60%的酒店属于外国人，长期的游客住在第二个家，这些所谓的美化城市的居民（富人或者退休的人，还有那些想要享受平静生活和优美环境的自由主义者）的数量如果达到一个临界值，就会引起他们新家附近的价格飞涨。

106页

Storm structure

The process by which a disturbance forms and subsequently strengthens into a hurricane depends on at least three conditions.Warm waters and moisture are mentioned above.The third condition is a wind pattern near the ocean surface that spirals air inward.Bands of thunderstorms form, allowing the air to warm further and rise higher into the atmosphere.If the winds at these higher levels are relatively light, this structure can remain intact and allow for additional strengthening.一股躁动气流随后加强成为飓风的过程需要至少3个条件。温水和降水是必不可少的，第三个条件是在海洋表面有内螺旋的空气所形成的风。雷电风暴的形成，让空气温度升高，然后上升到大气。如果在这个更高高度的风是相对轻的，这个结构还会保持完整然后继续加强。

第三篇：期末英语翻译部分

补全句子： 1.（应该适合人类，并有助于人机合一)Should serve man and contribute to cybernetics 2.（不断发新产品，并具备以前计算机所不具备的功能）design new machines continuously, which are capable of doing work that earlier computers could not;（在平常活动中肩负起更多的责任）take over more functions in daily life.3.（预测产品和服务的市场可接受度）predict which products and services the market will bear;（评估产品生命力的宝贵工具）an invaluable tools for assessing the viability of a product 4.（每当DOS执行一个程序）each time DOS executes a program;（当你正在通过Microsoft Windowws执行多个程序时）when executing multiple programs via Microsoft Windows 5.（当工作难找的时候）When jobs are scarce;（常常被有经验的工人排挤）tend to be pushed out in favor of experienced workers 6.（在这些更强大的目标导向的工具方面进行投资是有意义的）it is a good time to invest in these more powerful , goal-directed tools 7.（为用户进行内容定制）it executes the user’s custom contest;（将处理后的内容转换到所用的特定设备）it then loads the content onto the designated device in use 8.（不懂得与时俱进）do not keep up with regulations;（只会束缚人们的手脚）haue their hand tied 9.1.(是一个富于变化的领域，包括许多相互作用的组成部分)a perse field with many interacting components;（赋予信息，激发对话）imparts information, stimulates dialogue 10.（从食品，动物到植物健康部门的各种专家）a perse range of experts from the food, animal and plant health sectors 11.（从某种程度上）to a certain extent;（我国土地资源的后续利用，食品安全和生态环境）follow-up utilizing of land resource, food security and ecological environment of our country 12.（细菌太小，肉眼看不见).Bacteria are too

small to see with the naked the eye;（以避免细菌污染）avoid contamination with bacteria 13.（常被用作奶油的代用品）often used as a

substitute for butter

14.（转基因食品）genetically modified food;（转

基因食品优点）the merit of GM food 15.（加强食品监督与管理）strengthen the

supervision and administration of food safety;（维护好食品市场的秩序）maintain a good order of the food market

16.（采取了一项方案，就是在其投入英国市场食

品上做标注）introduced a labeling scheme for their products in the British market

17.（停止进口诸如火腿，肉制品等）suspend the

import of meats such as ham, pork products and others

18.（没能说服数百人改掉这一恶习）has failed to

convince hundreds of millions of people to abandon the bad habit 19.（令人质疑）raise eyebrows

20.（延伸覆盖大范围的市场）stretches across a

wide range of markets

21.（擦亮品牌）burnished the brand name 22.（为总裁们完成了一项最大的采购）have

made the ultimate acquisition for chief executives;（大手笔的花掉220亿美元财富的一部分）splashed some of the $22bn fortune 23.（使谷歌在未来几年里成为不可忽视的力量）

keep Google the force to be reckoned with for years to come

24.（以13.99的优惠价格抢购最新、最喜欢的Ｔ

恤衫）snap up your latest favorite T-shirt on sale for $13.99

25.（你将或多或少不得不面对数额巨大的出价）

you will be faced with a huge number of offers, to varying degrees

26.（使你在行业中处于更有利的地位）give you

a competitive advantage in your industry 27.（占谷歌所有搜索查询的四分之一）accounts

for a quarter of all Google search queries 28.（尝试区分人类访客和自动化访问者或机器

人）try to distinguish human visitors from automated visitors or robots

29.（富于创新精神的搜索引擎）innovative search engines 30.（提出设计）come up with a design 31.（坚守社会责任和保护自然环境的承诺）commitment to social responsibility and protecting the environment 32.（为订立国际条约和行动纲领建立共识）builds consensus towards international treaties and programmes of action 33.（在我们的短暂一生中，最好贡献莫过于此了）I don’t know of any better service to offer for the short time we are in the world 34.（我们要竭尽全力确保《京都议定书》生效）We should make every effort to ensure the Kyoto Protocol to come into force 35.（对生态环境影响相对较小）relatively little effect on the ecological environment;（一项重要政策）an important policy 36.活着的树木可以吸收碳）Living trees absorb carbon;（大气中碳的释放）the release of carbon into the atmosphere 37.（受由污染引起的酸雨影响）is affected by the acid rain caused by pollution 38.（尽管氮无毒且很大程度上不活泼）Although nitrogen is nontoxic and largely inert 39.（由清水状态转变为藻类过量繁殖状态）from a clear –water state to an algal bloom 40.（毁灭一个地理上孤立的小族群）wipe out a geographically isolated group 整句翻译：

41.为实现这些目标，在1997年签署了《京都议定书》，并于2005年开始强制生效。The Kyoto Protocol, which set about realizing those aims, was signed in 1997 and came into force in 2005.42.如果不能重新拟定新的国际公约，人类将没有任何机会来防治严重的气候突变问题。Without a new global agreement , there is not much chance of averting serious climate change.43.人们担忧的是对碳排放征税将使商业和经济受到创伤。What is worrying is that carbon taxes will hurt business and the economy.44.请你举一个具体的例子，说明你是怎样对你所处的环境进行评估并找到重点，以获得你所期望的结果的。Provide an example of how you assessed a situation and achieved good results by focusing on the

most important priorities.45.我们决心将每一个项目的成本降到最低，尽量提高效益。We are determined to minimise the cost of each and every project and to maximize

cost-effectiveness.41.（智商体现一种遗传的，即可继承的特质，或

者是文化传播的特质，该特质受家长和社会经济地位的影响。无论是哪一种，测试智商都不能影响社会的流动性）.IQ measures a genetic, and therefore heritable, traits or a culturally transmitted trait, influenced by parents and socio-economic status.Either way, testing IQ could not influence social mobility.42.（数据已经添加或更新在数据库中，但由于没

有达到从属记录源中的标准而将无法显示）43.The data was added or updated in the database，but will not be displayed because it does not satisfy the criteria in the subordinate record source.44.（没有一种学科方法证明，暴露于10ppm某

种污染达24小时是“安全的”，而暴露在超过那个污染程度便是“危险的”）There no scientific way to demonstrate that exposure to a pollutant in a concentration of one hundred parts per million for twenty-four hours is “safe”, while

exposures

above

that

level

ale

“dangerous”.45.（香港大学非常重视研究工作，专门成立了研

究生院协调各学院的研究教学工作，确保研究教育的质量）With much emphasis on research activities, Hong Kong university has established a Graduate School to co-ordinate research among faculty members and to ensure quality research and education.46.（传统的看法人为错误消息框的作用是在用

户错了时通知他们。实际上，大多数错误公告的作用是在计算机对指令感到不明时向用户报告）Conventional wisdom has held that error messages tell users when they have made a mistake.Actually, must error bulletins report when the computer gets confused.47.（由于某种原因，越来越多的人逐渐重视饮食

问题。无论因为情绪上的压力或是身体上的意外创伤，还是由于自信心的缘故，人们似乎都从饮食上寻求慰藉，而不是去寻求专业帮助）More and more people are developing eating issues for many different reasons.Whether it is because of emotional stress, traumatic incidents, or self-confidence issues ,people seem to run to food for comfort instead of seeking professional help

48.（其他人争论说，粮食匮乏不是粮食产量的问题，而是政府忽视了农业发展，未能有效利用粮食援救。而且保护性的贸易壁垒使消除饥饿更加困难）Others argue that food insecurity is not an issue of a shortfull in food production but rather that governments have neglected agricultural development ,made ineffective use of food aid ,and ,through protective trade barriers, made hunger alleviation more difficult to attain.49.你是否想过为什么快餐连锁店能够立刻做好你所点的菜，而在家里妈妈总是要花费几个小时的时间做饭？答案很简单。快餐连锁店使用了能够加快烹饪过程的物质，而科学证明，这些物质有害人体健康，如果长期食用，会产生严重的危害。Have you ever wondered as to why the fast food joint are able to provide you with your order in no time whereas mom at home takes hours to cook? The answer lies in the simple fact that in fast food joints substances that enhance the cooking process are used.It has been scientifically proved that these substances are very harmful to health and pose serious threats on continuous consumption.50.这看上去好像是科幻小说中的情节：政府已经宣称克隆动物所产的肉和奶是安全的，而今，克隆食品赫然出现在了全国的食品供应链中。It sounds like a scenario from a science-fiction novel: The government has declared that meat and dairy from cloned animals is safe.and now cloned products can show up in the nation’s food supply.53 51..如今，食品和药物管理局（ＦＤＡ）将要求进口商能够证实他们外国的供应商正在采取必要的安全防范措施。换句话说，他们应该能够确定来自智利的黑鲈与来自缅因州的龙虾符合同样的安全标准。Now, the FDA will

require importers to be able to verify that their foreign suppliers are taking the necessary safety precautions.In other words ,they’ll be able to make sure that sea bass from Chile meets the same safety standards as lobster from Maine.整句翻译：

52.如果该公司能够迎接复杂的、高度精密的生产

和极端期限的挑战，它不仅能提高自身作为行业翘楚的声誉，而且还会打开其他机会之门。If this company can meet the challenge of the complex, high-precision production and the tight deadline, it will not only burnish its reputation as industry leader but open up other opportunities.53.ＢＰ（英国石油）令人吃惊的谈到其在中国扩

张的雄心。不多，分析师们警告称，中国炼油行业盈利能力不佳意味着在该行业的任何投资到头来都可能是不具吸引力的。BP has raised eyebrows by talking about its ambitions for expansion in China.However, analysts warned that the poor profitability of China’s refining industry meant that taking a stake in the sector might prove unattractive.54.即使经过几年温和增长，股票期权也能使投资

者获得可观收益。Even after a few years of moderate growth, stock options can produce a handsome return for investors.55.空中客车公司（Airbus）与波音公司一直就世

界军事飞机合同进行一场长期的殊死战斗。就在一个月前在美国，ＥＡＤＳ，空中客车的母公司，拿走了波音公司一个将近四百亿美元的空中加油机合同。Airbus have been fighting a long and bruising battle with Boeing for military aircraft contracts around the world.Just a month ago in the U.S., EADS, the parent company of Airbus , snatched away a nearly 40 billion air tanker contract from Boeing.56.在现在所有语言中没有一个词可以准确地描

述信息技术对人类生活的巨大影响。No word in all languages exists to describe the great impact of information technology on human life.

第四篇：水利专业助理工程师常识部分总结

水土流失

在水力、风力、重力等外营力作用下，山丘区及风沙区水土资源和土地生产力的破坏和损失。它包括土地表层侵蚀及水的损失，也称水土损失。土地表层侵蚀指在水力、风力、冻融、重力以及其他地质营力作用下，土壤、土壤母质及其他地面组成物质如岩屑损坏、剥蚀、转运和沉积的全部过程。水土流失的形式除雨滴溅蚀、片蚀、细沟侵蚀、浅沟侵蚀、切沟侵蚀等典型的土壤侵蚀形式外，还包括山洪侵蚀、泥石流侵蚀以及滑坡等侵蚀形式水的损失一般是指植物截留损失、地面及水面蒸发损失、植物蒸腾损失、深层渗漏损失、坡地径流损失。

在中国水土流失概念中水的损失主要指坡地径流损失。水的损失过程与土壤侵蚀过程之间，既有紧密的联系，又有一定的区别。水的损失形式中如坡地径流损失，是引起土壤水蚀的主导因素，水冲土跑，水土损失是同时发生的。但是，并非所有的坡面径流以及其他水的损失形式都会引起土壤侵蚀。因此，有些增加土壤水分贮存量，抗旱保墒的水分控制措施不一定是为了控制土壤侵蚀。中国不少水土流失严重的地区如黄土高原，位于干旱、半干旱的气候条件下，大气干旱、土壤干旱与土壤侵蚀作用同样地对生态环境与农业生产造成严重危害。因此，水的保持与土壤保持具有同等重要的意义。

排水

农田里水分太多了也不是好事。土壤容积由固体、液体、气体三部分组成，在土的固体颗粒之间的空隙里，一部分被水占住了，另一部分就是空气。对于植物来讲，空气和水，缺一不可。如果土壤里的空隙都被水所充满了，一般植物的根系就会窒息而死；如果田地里的水量过多，不仅将土壤空隙全部填满了，而且田面积水深度超过一定限度，并且持续较长时间，就连水稻等水生植物也会被淹死的。

我们把土壤中水分过多致使旱田农作物根部窒息称之为“渍害”，把田面积水太多以致浸没了庄稼造成的灾害称为“涝灾”。显然，产生渍害和涝灾的原因，多数是因天降大雨或连绵阴雨而又排不出去，或者是江河里的水漫溢进来（外来的水淹没农田，一般称为“洪水”）；在某些情况下，由于地下水位升高而逐渐从土层中浸渍上来，致使植物的根系活动层的土壤过湿。渍、涝、洪灾是农田里正常的水量平衡遭到破坏的结果，而且，往往是两种或三种灾害同时出现，交相示虐。如外洪内涝，先涝后渍等。所以，人们又把它们统称为“水灾”。水灾主要发生在地势低洼之处和降雨集中之时，这就是人们常说的雨季或汛期。

为了解除洪涝和渍害，以保证农作物生长的正常条件，就必须采用人为的办法把多余的地面水和土壤水送到江河、湖泊里去，这就是排水。对于洪水来讲，更重要的措施是防止它浸入农田。即筑提挡水，并疏通大江大河，滞蓄洪水，以减轻河道的负担。

灌溉

为了保持农作物有良好的生长发育条件，必须有足够的养分和水分，适宜的温度和空气含量。水，不仅是生物体本身的重要组成部分（一般农作物植株含水量占其总重量的70％－80％，蔬菜和块根作物的含水量达90％－95％），而且是输送养料，调节温热的媒介。水分在植物内是不断循环运动的，植物的根从土壤中源源不断地吸取水分，又通过植物的叶和茎的蒸腾将水分散发到大气中，从而保持它旺盛的生命力。

土壤中的水分含量也是反复增减变化的。天上降雨下雪，地面河水漫溢，地下水通过毛细管上升……等，都是农田水分的天然来源。土地表面的蒸发，农作物的蒸腾，降暴雨以后地面水形成的径流以及下渗到土壤里去的水量，则是农田水分减少的原因。如果某一地区在较长一段时间内缺少雨雪，河水断流，气候干燥，地下水位也逐渐降低，农田里正常的水量平衡受到破坏，土壤将越来越干旱，植物体内的水分必然日益减少，其结果，轻则减缓其生长的趋势，重则枯萎死亡。

在干旱季节里，为了保证农田里有足够的水分，就必须采用人为的办法把其它的地方或地下深处的水引到田里来，并使它均匀地湿润每一块土地，以满足农作物的需要，这就是灌溉。

在生产水平比较低下，或真水量很少的一些地方，灌溉的目的只是为了抗旱，抢救农作物免于枯萎死亡，所以称之为“抗旱灌溉”。但随着农业生产水平的提高，人类利用自然能力的加强，人们更进一步要求在农田里随时都能保持最适宜的水分状况，使农作物茁壮成长，获得高额的产量，这就叫“丰产灌溉”。

在干旱地带，没有灌溉就没有农业；在半干旱、半湿润地带，没有灌溉就不能保证农业的稳产；在湿润地带，由于雨量年分配不匀，也要辅以灌溉措施，才能保证农业高产。

防洪标准

各种防洪保护对象或工程本身要求达到的防御洪水的标准。通常以频率法计算的某—重现期的设计洪水为防洪标准，或以某一实际洪水(或将其适当放大)作为防洪标准。在—般情况下，当实际发生的洪水不大于防洪标准的洪水时，通过防洪工程的正确运用，能保证工程本身或保护对象的防洪安全。中国对已建防洪工程的防洪标准按国家标准GB 50201—94《防洪标准》执行；对保护对象的防洪安全，具体体现为防洪控制点的最高水位不高于保证水位，或流量不大于河道安全泄量。

防洪标准与工程本身或防洪保护对象的重要性、洪水灾害的严重性及其影响直接有关，并与国民经济的发展水平相联系。国家根据需要与可能，对防拱标准用规范予以规定。在防洪工程的规划设计中，一般按照规范选定防洪标准，并进行必要的论证。对特殊情况，例如洪水泛滥可能造成大量人口死亡等严重后果时，在经过充分论证后可采用比规范规定更高的标准。如因投资、工程量、移民等因素的限制一时难以达到规定的防洪标准时，也可以分期达到。

世界各国所采用的防洪标准各不相同，例如，日本对特别重要的城市要求防200年—遇洪水，重要城市防100年一遇洪水，一般城市防50年一遇洪水；印度要求重要城镇的堤防按50年一遇洪水设计；其他国家的防洪标准大体在此范围内。农田的防洪标准—般为防御10～20年一遇洪水。澳大利亚一般农牧业只要求防3—7年一遇洪水。美国密西西比河防洪规划采用的标准是按水文气象法作出的“计划洪水”，约相当于频率法的100年一遇洪水。

中国的防洪标准过去没有统一规定，1995年颁布了中华人民共和国国家标准GB50201—94《防洪标准》。该标准对城市，乡村，工矿企业，交通运输设施(含铁路、公路、航运、民用机场、管道工程、木材水运工程)，水利水电工程(含水库、水电站、灌排工程、供水工程、堤防)，动力设施，通信设施，文物古迹和旅游设施等，分别不同规模、不同情况规定了应采用的防洪标准及处理有关问题的原则。

汛期

汛期是指江河中由于流域内季节性降水、融冰、化雪，引起定时性水位上涨的时期。我国汛期主要是由于夏季暴雨和秋季连绵阴雨造成的。从全国来讲，汛期的起止时间不一样，主要由各地区的气候和降水情况决定。南方入汛时间较早，结束时间较晚；北方入汛时间较晚，结束时间较早。每年5至9月，江淮流域降雨明显比其他月份多，习惯上把这一段时间称为汛期。汛期是一年中降水量最大时时期，容易引起洪涝灾害，因此应做好防汛工作。

涝灾与洪灾的区别

涝灾：由于本地降水过多,地面径流不能及时排除,农田积水超过作物耐淹能力,造成农业减产的灾害。造成农作物减产的原因是，积水深度过大，时间过长，使土壤中的空气相继排出，造成作物根部氧气不足，根系部呼吸困难，并产生乙醇等有毒有害物质,从而影响作物生长,甚至造成作物死亡。

洪灾：洪灾是由于江、河、湖、库水位猛涨，堤坝漫溢或溃决，使客水入境而造成的灾害。涝灾除对农业造成重大灾害外，还会造成工业甚至生命财产的损失。

涝灾与洪灾的共同点是地表积水（或径流）过多，区别是涝灾因本地降水过多而造成，洪灾则是因客水入境而造成。

什么是洪水

洪水是一种峰高量大、水位急剧上涨的自然现象。洪水一般包括江河洪水、城市暴雨洪水、海滨河口的风暴潮洪水、山洪、凌汛等。

什么是防洪规划

防洪规划就是在研究流域洪水特性及其影响的基础上，根据流域自然地理条件、社会经济状况和国民经济发展的需要，确定防洪标准，通过分析比较，合理选定防洪方案，从而确定工程和非工程措施。

什么是防洪调度

防洪调度就是通过蓄、泄、滞、分等措施，人为改变天然洪水的时、空分布规律，以达到减免洪水灾害的目的。

什么是除涝标准

除涝标准是指遇上多少年一遇暴雨，多少日雨量，在多少天内排除。它是设计排水系统的主要依据。

什么是散浸

散浸，一般又叫“堤出汗”，是指江水上涨，堤身泡水，水从堤内坡或内坡脚附近渗出。当水位持续时间过长，散浸范围就将沿堤内坡上升、扩大，如不及时处理，就会发生内脱坡、管漏等险情。

土堤挡水后，渗水经过堤身向堤内坡方向渗透，是自然规律。但由于以下一些原因：1.堤身单薄，内坡过陡；2.堤身土质砂重，外坡又无透水性小的粘土防渗；3.堤质太差，筑堤时所取土块没有打碎，留有空隙，蛾夯不实；4.堤内有隐患（如蚁侗、獾穴、树根、暗沟等），缩短了渗径。使渗径长度不够，浸润线（渗水在堤身内渗透的上界线叫做浸润线）抬高，渗水就将在堤内坡的坡面或坡脚附近渗出，就形成散浸。

什么叫管涌

管涌又称潜蚀、流土，是指在汛期高水位情况下，堤内平地发生“流土”和“潜蚀”两种不同含义的险情的统称。这种险情在湖北一般叫翻砂鼓水，江西叫泡泉。管涌险情的发展，以流土最为迅速。它的过程是随着水位上升，涌水挟带出的砂粒增多，涌水量也随着加大，涌水量增大挟带出砂粒也就更多，如将附近堤（闸）基下砂层淘空，就会导致堤（闸）身骤然下挫，甚至酿成决堤的灾害。当然有由于管涌孔距堤较远，一时尚未演成堤防、闸身的下挫或溃决的；也有由于水位转落，渗水压力减小，险情暂时稳定下来的；还有由于是潜蚀，没有产生堤（闸）身下挫、溃决险情的。但是，险情是属于流土还是潜蚀，一时难于判明。而且流土也与地层下面的粉砂、细砂层埋藏的深度、厚度以及其结构的疏密，高水位持续的久暂等因素有关，而这些因素一时也是难以判定的。所以发生管涌时，不论它是流土，还是潜蚀和距堤远近，均不能掉以轻心，必须迅速予以处理。

一般来说，长江中下游平原冲积地层，上面是粘性土；往下是粉砂、细砂等，砂层间也有粘性土夹层的，再往下则是砂砾及卵石等强透水层，在河床中露头与河水相通（见图）。在汛期高水位时由于渗水流经强透水层压力损失很小，堤内数百米范围内粘土层下面仍承受很大的水压力，如果这股水压力，冲破了粘土层，下面的粉砂、细砂就会随水流出（在没有反滤层保护的情况下），从而发生管涌。

什么是跌窝

跌窝是指汛期堤身或外滩发生局部塌洞。

发生跌窝的原因有：白蚁、蛇、鼠、獾之类在堤内打洞，或筑堤时土块架空末经夯实，遇江水高涨，江水灌入，或雨水泡浸使洞周土体浸软而形成局部陷落，所以跌窝伴随漏洞而发生。跌窝险情的发生主要由堤身隐患引起，所以在平时应注意加强捕獾、灭蚁工作。解放以来，在发动群众捕捉獾兽，翻筑兽穴方面做了不少工作；在灭蚁方面，近年来荆江大堤修防单位研究从发现蚁被、蚁线（白蚁蛀蚀过的松散土粒成片的叫做蚁被，成线的叫做蚁线）的方法，寻找蚁洞，再采取抽槽翻筑，取得很好成效。这是防止或减少汛期发生跌窝、漏洞的积极有效措施。但由于堤线很长，危险堤身的害虫害兽仍会有滋生或转移，所以对汛期发生跌窝险情仍须予以重视。

什么是内脱坡

内脱坡是指当堤背水坡发生严重散浸时，没有及时处理，时间拖久，则在散浸堤段的堤顶或内肩、内坡，发生向堤脚下挫的弧形裂缝，随着土壤结构被破坏，内坡就整块的向下滑动，形成滑动部分下挫，坡脚土壤上鼓的险象。

内脱坡与散浸有联带关系，散浸严重的堤段，堤坡浸水饱和，土的抗剪强度降低，堤坡稳定破坏，兼堤脚基础虚软，内临水塘湖沼，阻滑力减弱，当它不能支持堤坡滑动土体时，就产生脱坡。

什么是漏洞

漏洞出口一般发生在堤内坡下部或坡脚附近。开始时因漏水量小，堤土很少被冲动，所以漏水较清，叫做清水漏洞。由于洞周土体浸泡时松散崩解，或产生局部滑动，或堤身填土含砂重，土体可能被漏水带出，使漏洞变大。这时，漏水转浑，发展成为浑水漏洞。如不及时抢救，则将迅速发展成为堤防决口。

一般说来，是由于堤身内部遗留有屋基、阴沟、暗剅、腐朽树根等物，筑堤时末清除；填筑质量不好，龙口（交卡）不密实；或为白蚁、蛇、鼠、獾在堤内打洞。在高水位压力下，将平时的淤塞物冲开；或因渗水沿隐患、松土串连而成漏洞。尤其在高水位堤身浸泡时久，土体结构变松软，更易促成漏洞的发生，故有“久浸成漏”之说。

第五篇：过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译(部分)

Unit 16 压力容器及其部件

压力容器时不泄露的容器。它们有各种尺寸。最小的直径不到一英寸，最大的直径能达到150英尺甚至更大。某些是埋在地下或海洋深处，多数是安放在地上或支撑在平台上，还有一些实际上是在航天飞行器中的贮槽和液压装置中。

由于内部压力，容器被设计成各种形状和尺寸。内部的压力可能低到1英寸，水的表面压力可能达到300000多磅。普通的单层表面建筑压力是15到5000磅，虽然有很多容器的设计压力高出或低于这个范围。ASME锅炉和压力标准中第八卷第一节指定一个范围从15磅在底部到上限，然而，内部压力在3000磅以上，ASME标准，第八卷第一节，指出考虑特殊设计的情况是必要的。

压力容器的典型部件描述如下：

圆柱壳体在石化工业中对于结构压力容器圆柱壳体是经常被用到的，它是很容易制造、安装并且维修很经济。虽然在一些场合应用载荷和外压控制，要求的厚度通常由内压决定。其他因素如热应力和不连续压力可能有要求厚度决定。

成型的封头许多的端封头和过度部分有设计工程师选择。用一种结构相对另一种依靠很多因素，如成型方法、材料成本、和空间限。一些经常应用的成型封头是：

带凸缘的封头 这些封头通常在较低压力的压力设备中，例如汽油罐和锅炉。有些也应用在较高压力的但是较小直径的设备中。设计和结构的许多细节在ASME标准，第八卷第一节中给出。

半球形封头通常，在一个给定温度和压力下半球形的要求厚度是相同直径和材料圆柱壳体的一半。假如我们用镍和钛昂贵的合金建造实心或覆盖形半球形封头，这样是很经济的。假如使用碳钢，然而，由于这高价的制造费用就不比凸缘形和碟形的封头经济。

半球形封头经常通过部分三角形结构加工，也可以通过旋转法或施压法加工。由于半球形封头比与它们连接的圆柱壳体薄，所以在封头与壳体连接区域必须是等高的，以便减小不连续区域的影响。

椭圆与准球形封头这样的封头是十分普遍的在压力容器中。它们的厚度与连接壳体是一样的。这就简化了焊接安装的工作。因此，由于这边意外的区域所需的厚度小于封头的实际厚度，多余的部分就可以用于这些区域内接管的补强。许多工厂都可以提供不同直径和厚度的封头而且在价格上有很强的竞争力。

锥型和准锥形封头这些封头在漏斗型和塔容器中作为底部封头应用，而且它们也可用做不同圆柱直径的过渡区域。由于在链接区不平衡应力，这圆锥到圆柱的链接区必须考虑成圆锥形设计的一部分。因为较大的力，ASME标准，八卷一节中，规定当锥形内部施加压力顶角限制成小于30度。

盲板，覆盖版，和法兰一个较为普遍形式的压力容器封头是无支撑的扁平封头或覆板。这可能由完整壳