第一篇：英汉歧视性谚语对比研究

英汉歧视性谚语对比研究

彭开明, 朱景华, 何芳

(井冈山学院外国语学院, 江西吉安343009)摘要: 英汉语言都存在歧视性谚语, 主要包括四个方面, 即女性歧视、地域性歧视、贫困歧视、职业歧视。英汉歧视性谚语特点为: 拥有共层文化背景;反映出不同文化渊源;体现不同的文化内涵、思维观念。关键词: 歧视性谚语;英汉对比

谚语是具有特定含义的定型词组, 反映了社会风貌、生活习惯、地域、民族、文化等特征, 承载了丰富的社会、文化内涵, 是文化观念的产物及社会小型百科全书。由于谚语与人类社会、文化密切相关, 体现了社会的各个侧面, 而“不同的社会集团都竭力要在公用语中掺进自己特有的语言因素”,“选取合他们口味的语言成分来表现他们自己”[1](P23), 因而, 它既凝聚了人类的经验与智慧, 体现了丰富的哲理和共同的道德价值, 同时, 也反映出人类社会、文化中某些消极、陈旧的成分。后一类谚语最初只是反映一部分人或是对一部分人的看法, 到后来以偏概全,成了一种社会成见, 所以鲁迅先生才说: “粗略的一想, 谚语固然好象是一时代一国民的意思的结晶,但其实, 却不过是一部分的人们的意思。”(《南腔北调集·谚语》)这类谚语突出表现在某一区域、民族、社会群体等的片面的、狭隘的思想观念、认识, 及专横的、不健康的、藐视的心理, 导致我们所称之谓的歧视性谚语。歧视性谚语只是整个谚语中的一小部分, 但却在各种语言中普遍存在。其中包括英汉语言。探讨 英汉歧视性谚语有哪些主要类型, 其共性和异质性表现, 以及所体现的社会文化背景、标志, 无疑具有突出的典型意义, 有助于我们对英汉歧视性谚语的正确理解和运用。

一、英汉歧视性谚语几种主要类型

英汉歧视性谚语表现形式非常多, 我们只是对其中几种主要类型作初步探讨。(一)女性歧视

人类历史上除去原始社会的母系氏族社会外,在奴隶社会、封建社会以及资本主义社会, 妇女始终处于社会底层, 饱受歧视、压迫和凌辱。作为“一种社会现象”[1](P27)的语言, 无疑也反映了文化的这一通约性。英汉两种语言中都存在为少不数的歧视女性的词语。例如在汉语表示伦理关系的亲属语素加合式组合中, 便体现了重男轻女现象, 都是男性在前, 女性在后。如, 只说“父母, 公婆、夫妻、儿女”等, 而不说“母父、婆公、妻夫、女儿”;而

英语一些用词也表现出大男子主义, 如“人类”只说mankind, human,不说womankind, huwoman, 用he 而不是用she 作两性通称, “历史”是history, 而不是herstory 等。而作为社会小百科全书的谚语, 自然也存在这种严重歧视女性现象, 其中英语歧视女性的谚语不胜枚举, 而且涉及面很广。有宣扬大男子主义思想方面的。如:A man of straw is worth a woman of gold.(稻草男抵得上金玉女。)Man,woman and devil,are the three degrees of comparison.(男人, 女人和魔鬼, 三类分贵贱。)有诋毁女人愚昧无知的。如:Women have long hair and short brains 或Long hair and short wit 或Long hair—little brains(相当于汉语的“女人头发长, 见识短。”)有的还相当刻薄。如:When an ass climbs a ladder,we may findwisdom in women.(驴子能上梯, 女人才聪明。)A woman cuts her wisdom teeth when she isdead.(女人死了才明理。)有女人性情方面的诸多贬词。如:Frailty ,thy name is womanE(脆弱啊, 你的名字就是女人!)2007 年1 月

井冈山学院学报(哲学社会科学)Journal of Jinggangshan University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)Vol.28 No.1 Jan.2007 井冈山学院学报(哲学社会科学)第28 卷第1 期

Woman is made to weep.(女人生性爱流眼泪。)Women will have their wills.(女人爱一意孤行。)A woman is a weather cock.(女人是风向标。)Women are saints in church ,angels in the street and devils at home.(女人在教堂是圣人, 在街头是天使, 在家里是魔鬼。)Women, priests, and, poultry, have never enough.(家禽没有吃饱的时候, 女人、牧师没有厌足的时候。)Three women make a market.(三个女人成集 市。)Women have long tongues.(妇有长舌)A sieve will hold water better than a woman' s mouth a secret.(筛子存不住水, 女人更存不住秘密。)结论是女人危险。如:Women are the snares of satan.(女人是撒旦设下的陷阱。)There is no devil so bad as a she—devil.(魔鬼当中女的最坏。)而汉语中, 宣扬男尊女卑, 鄙视女性思想的, 以孔子的“唯女子与小人为难养也”为甚, 其他如:男当家, 女插花。男子三十是枝花, 女子三十豆腐渣。男子进州走县, 女子围着锅头转。大米不算饭, 女人不算人(北方谚语)。女人头发长, 见识短。嫁出去的女, 泼出去的水。女大不中留, 留了结冤仇。夫倡妇随。嫁鸡随鸡, 嫁狗随狗。有诋毁妇女的。如:红颜祸水。男子有德便是才, 女子无才便是德。女人水性杨花。

三个女子一台戏。妇有长舌, 唯厉之阶。乱匪降自天, 生自妇女。男人有钱就变坏, 女人变坏就有钱。(二)地域性歧视

英语中存在不少贬损别的国家或地区的用语, 包括谚语,Dutch,French,Chinese 等直接成了贬义词。如:Frence disease 梅毒(英法两国都说此病来源于对方国家)pedler' s French 窃贼的黑语 Dutch widow妓女 Dutch courage 酒后之勇

Chinese compliment 违心地赞成别人的意见 Not a Chinese chance 机会渺茫

One Englishman can beat three Frenchmen.(一个英国人可以打败三个法国人。)此外, 英国国内地区之间也存在这种地域性歧视谚语。如: A Scotishman is always wise behind the hand.(苏格兰人总是事后聪明。)England' s difficulty is Ireland ' s opportunity.(英格兰的遭难是爱尔兰的良机。)而且, 在其民族内部也有地域性歧视谚语。如:Put the Irishman on the spit and you can always get another to baste him.(把一个爱尔兰人放在铁签上烤, 肯定能找到另一位爱尔兰人在他身上涂油。)比较而言, 汉语中歧视外国的谚语较为鲜见,国内地区、民族之间相互诋毁的谚语也为数不多,其中有的业已作古, 有的形式发生了变化。如, 南蛮舌, “南蛮”是古代对南方少数民族性称呼, “ ”即杜鹃, “南蛮舌”意即南方方言及南方少数民族的语言象鸟语一样, 折射出当时汉族文化观念方面的一种鄙视态度。但这一谚语今天已失去意义, 不再使用。再如, “胡言乱语”, 最初的形式为“胡言汉语”。战国以后, 古人把北边和西边少数民族统称为“胡”。胡人与汉人相处, 说汉语生硬别扭, 变腔走调, 汉人讥笑为“胡言汉语”, 后来才演变为今天的形式。(三)贫困歧视

崇拜金钱, 歧视贫困, 在人类历史上是一种突出的畸形现象, 反映在英汉语言中, 都存在不少这方面谚语。如英语中表示拜金主义的: Money makes the mare(to)go.(有钱能叫马儿走。)Money talks.(金钱无嘴会说话。)Money will do anything.(钱是万能的。)Money governs the world.(金钱统治世界。)

What will not money doO(有钱何事难成?)Money is the best passport.(钱是最好的通行证。)汉语则有: 有钱能使鬼推磨。钱能通神。钱呀钱, 命相连。爹亲娘亲, 细细银子最亲。人为财死, 鸟为食亡。见钱眼开。

钱是人的胆, 不会说话也会喊。有钱男子汉, 没钱汉子难。

正如汉语谚语说的“人敬有钱的, 狗咬挎篮的”, 由于崇拜金钱, 便自然出现嫌贫爱富、贬损穷人方 面的谚语。如英语有: Beggars breed and rich men feed.(穷人生, 富 人养。)Poor men have no souls.(穷人没有灵魂。)Poverty is the mother of crime.(贫穷是罪恶的根源。)Poverty obstructs the road to virtue.(穷人不讲道德。)Poverty is the worst guard for chastity.(人穷无贞操。)The devil wipes his tail with the poor man' spride.(魔鬼常用穷人的自尊心擦自己的尾巴。)汉语相关谚语则有: 饥寒生盗心。人穷志短。人穷理短。饥不择食。

穷站街头无人问, 富居深山有远亲。(四)职业性歧视

“三百六十行中人尽有狼心狗行, 狠似强盗之人”(凌蒙初《初刻拍案警奇》第八卷), 加

上社会观念、世俗偏见, 便造成对某些职业的歧视现象。这在英汉谚语中都有所反映, 但侧重面有所不同, 英语主要在面包师、裁缝、磨坊主、牧师等方面职业。如: A hundred tailors, a hundred millers and a hundred weavers are three hundred thieves.(一百个裁缝, 一百个磨坊主, 还有一百个纺织工, 加起来是三百个贼。)Three things are insatiable :priests,monks and the sea.(世上有三种东西无法满足: 牧师, 修士,大海。)An honest miller has a golden thumb.(诚实的磨坊主也有个金戒指。)The tailor must cut three sleeves to every woman' s gown.(女人的睡衣, 裁缝都要裁三只袖子。)I fear we part not yet, quoth the baker to the pillory.(面包师对颈手枷说: 我们恐怕结下了不解之缘。)(指过去由于面包师对面包搀假, 斤两不够, 常被课以重罚, 并在颈手枷里示众, 以敬效尤。)而中国虽有“家有三斗粮, 不做孩子王”的说法, 其实历来都是奉行“万般皆下品, 惟有读书高”的思想的, 提倡“天地君亲师位”伦理观念。除此, 其 他职业大都遭到鄙视, 尤其是做生意的。如:无商不奸。挂羊头, 卖狗肉。

养子不当打石匠, 天晴落雨在坡上。有女不嫁弹花匠, 立着就象狗一样。邋遢泥人臭漆匠, 没爹没娘做篾匠。修鞋工人实在苦, 又脏又臭抱着补。裁缝不偷布, 娃儿没得裤。百业有三苦: 挖煤打铁磨豆腐。自古撑船三分低。

此外, 汉语中戏弄、嗤笑和尚的谚语也较多。如: 和尚打伞, 无法无天。

一个和尚担水吃, 两个和尚扛水吃, 三个和尚 没水吃。

当一天和尚撞一天钟。一个和尚一套经。

二、对英汉歧视性谚语的文化思考

谚言是文化的产物, 体现文化标志, 与文化背景密切联系。从文化共层背景和异层背景角度探讨英汉歧视性谚语的共性、异质性表现及其缘由, 有助于揭示此类谚语的生成规则、社会意义及其与文化的内在联系。

(一)英汉歧视性谚语棱镜中折射出共层文化 背景

法国著名语言学家穆南认为, 由于人类生活在同一星球, 拥有整个生态共相领域, 因而具有相同的体验形式, 产生了生理和心理的类似性, 形成生物共相, 从而导致文化相似性(奈达, 1984), 即文化共相的存在, 由此产生了语言共相, 或说语言之间的相似性。英汉语言中共同存在歧视性谚语及其大至相同的种类, 恰好印证了文化大同这一大背景。如前 所述, 大多谚语体现民族智慧, 具有积极的正面意义, 但也有部分谚语带有贬义, 内容带歧视色彩, 反映一种社会现象和某一群体的看法。英汉语言都存在这类谚语, 并且与其它谚语兼收并蓄, 一并流传下来, 证明了人类体验、认知、观念的类同, 拥有文化模式宏观上的共层背景。此外, 在英汉歧视性谚语中, 有的形式类同, 更多的是不同形式大致表达同一观念, 有异曲同工之效。如: 英语:Women have long hair and short brains.汉: 女人头发长, 见识短。英:Money makes the mare(to)go.汉: 有钱能使鬼推磨。英: Poverty obstructs the road to virtue.汉: 人穷志短。英: A woman is a weathercock.汉: 女人水性扬花。英: If the husband be not at home,there is nobody.汉: 大米不算饭, 女人不算人。这种同类现象说明了, 由于人类拥有共同生活环境, 形成宇宙共相, 从而产生了共同的语言场, 具有相似的价值观和表达方式。

(二)英汉歧视性谚语反映出不同的文化渊源语言是文化的产物, 不同的语言是不同文化的造化。不同语言的差异不仅本身就是文化的差异,而且反映出不同的文化渊源。英汉歧视性谚语恰好印证了这种不同的差异。追本穷源, 查证有些英汉歧视性谚语源自各自民族文学。如, Frailty,thy name is woman!便出自莎士比亚的剧作《哈姆雷特》, “女人水性扬花”可在《红楼梦》92 回里见到, 说女人爱嚼舌根、导致灾祸的谚语可在《诗经·大雅》里寻见: “妇有长舌, 唯厉之乱。乱匪降自天, 生自妇人”;有些则出自不同宗教文化。中国信佛教, 不少歧视性谚语便与和尚、尼姑有关, 而西方世界笃信基督教, 相关谚语有的便与牧师、修士有牵连;有的歧视性谚语源自历史文化背景。如, 英国由于历史上长期争霸, 进行海外殖民扩张, 滋长了一种不健康的种族优势、民族中心的思想, 因而便出现了不少地

域性歧视谚语;还有的歧视性谚语与不同的文化习俗、观念形态相关。如西方生活以面食为主, 加之过去有些不良面包师做面包搀假或是斤两不足, 因而对他们产生很深成见,由此便出现了一些歧视面包师方面的谚语。

(三)英汉歧视性谚语体现不同文化内涵、思维观念人类的思维是文化创造的工具(邢福义,2003),不同的文化内涵体现不同的思维方式、思维水平。中国文化一个突出特征为, 注重象征性, 重直观形象思维;而西方文化则重逻辑思维, 重抽象理论。反映在语言上, 则表现为前者思维方式具体化, 后者思维方式抽象化的差异。英汉歧视性谚语在联想方式方面, 也就是在不同事物中发现相似点的认知方式即比喻手段方面,体现了中西文化的这一不同思维观念。考察汉语歧视性谚语, 大多使用直观式的具象性比喻, 即本体事物和喻体事物在形态、色彩、声音、气味、动态和具体可感方面相似, 喻体在用词上多用具体名词和动词, 不纯粹使用抽象词汇。如: “嫁出去的女, 泼出去的水”, “男子三十是枝花, 女子三十豆腐渣”, “女人水性扬花”, “挂羊头, 卖狗肉”,“当一天和尚撞一天钟”, “大米不算饭,女人不算人”等。这类比喻的喻体都取材于普通生活常识, 与本体之间的相似联系非常客观, 其联想距离和跨度不大, 具有最明显最近似的联想特征。从审美角度看,这些比喻对喻体的描摹是静止的, 诉诸直观形象,是一种直观美。由于这些比喻本体同喻体之间的联想关系符合大家共同的生活经验, 因而使比喻具有广泛的接受性, 拥有共同生活经验的人, 都可产生相同的联想。英语歧视性谚语不少则使用以虚喻实的比喻方式, 用有关感情、心理、性质等抽象或无形质的事物去比喻本体事物, 喻体所使用的词汇都是抽象词汇或无形的词汇。如:Women, wind and fortune are ever changing.A woman cuts her wisdom teeth when she is dead.Frailty, thy name is womanW Poverty obstructs the road to virtue.Poverty is the mother of crime.Poverty is the worst guard for chastity 等。在这一认知方式中, 认识兴趣不再在环境, 不在外部世界, 而在主体自身, 突出“以无为本”哲学,更加关注内在的精神里的虚无本体, 即由重视“再现”客观出发到更重视“表现”主观, 使比喻变得主观化、个性化, 其描写对象变得虚凌、清空, 给人以独特、陌生的联想感受。参考文献: [1]陈原.社会语言学[M].上海: 学林出版社,1983.[2]Longman Dictionary of English Idioms [Z]..1997.Longman Group Limited.[3]Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable [Z].Centenary edition, 1975.London: Cassell Company Ltd.[4]Henderson, B.L.K.1954.A Dictionary of English Idioms[Z].London: James Blackwood Co Ltd.[5]邢福义.文化语言学[M].武 汉: 湖北教育出版社,2003.[6]史式.汉语成语研究[M].成都: 四川人民出版社,1979.[7]邱崇丙.俗话说得好[M].北京: 中国社会出版社,2003.[8]郭建民.英语谚语研究[M].兰州: 甘肃人民出版社,1992.[9]崔鸣秋,王世智.中英谚语合壁[M].北京: 中国电影出版社, 1997.Comparison Between English and Chinese in Discriminatory Proverbs PENG Kaiming, ZHU Jinghua, HE Fang(Foreign Language College, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China)Abstract:There exist discriminatory proverbs both in English and Chinese, including mainly four aspects, namely, female discrimination, regional discrimination, poverty discrimination and professional discrimination.Discriminatory proverbs both in English and Chinese share the following features: they enjoy, on the whole, the same cultural settingS they show different cultural origins and they display different ways of thinking.Key words:discriminatory proverbsS comparison between English and Chinese

第二篇：毕业论文：英汉动物谚语的对比研究

A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 1

A Comparative Study of English and

Chinese Animal

Proverbs I.Introduction In Longman Modern English Dictionary, proverb is “a brief familiar maxim of folk wisdom, usually compressed in form, often involving a bold image and frequently a jingle that catches the memory.” A proverb, which succinctly sums up human experience and observation of the world, states a general truth and gives advice or warning.A proverb, often involving a bold image, musical rhythm and compressed form, can bring vividness to the readers and so they are easy to remember and spread.Proverbs are summing up of folk wisdom, they are usually pithy, and have universal appeals.People love to pick up proverbs when they try to reason things out and the proper use of proverbs can make their views more convincing.Proverbs are the crystal of the national wisdom.They are an important part of a national language and they appropriately reflect the relation between culture and language.They have been connected closely with the national characteristics ever since their coming into being and in their development.It is generally acknowledged that different peoples have great differences in their cultures.But since different peoples live on the same earth with roughly similar needs and some of them have even experienced similar social development stage, their experiences, emotional reflection and observation of the world are in many aspects similar.This shows that different peoples may have cultural generality besides cultural difference.Proverbs, as the cream of a language, inevitably carry the imprint of cultural difference and generality.The difference and generality respectively lead to the dissimilarities and similarities between English and Chinese animal proverbs and making a comparative study of them is of great significance.A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 2

II.Animals Proverbs with Identical Meanings Some animal proverbs in English and Chinese are identical in meaning.The proverbs in this category are limited in number.They are the result of either coincidence or translation loans from one language to another.These proverbs are not hindered by national boundaries or culture barriers, instead they have take on universal significance.The following are some examples.1.English: An ass is known by his ears./ Chinese: 见耳识驴，听话知愚。2.English: It is a sad house where the hen crows louder than the cock.Chinese: 牝鸡司晨，家之不详。

Many factors have contributed to the emergence of fully corresponding pairs in English and Chinese proverbs.Firstly, although different nations live in varied natural environments and persified geographic conditions, they still share quite a lot in common.They have more or less the same species of animals.And the common ground of human cultures is larger than the inpidual feature of each culture.Although, people’s concrete ways of life are varied in different places, the fundamental ways of living and thinking are the same for the whole human race.Secondly, owing to culture exchange, translation loans are borrowed from each other, which are not limited to the root ideas but sometimes include the “clothing of the idea”.As a result, some proverbs with identical animal image come into existence in different language, for instance, “He who rides a tiger is afraid to dismount” and “骑虎难下”.III.Animal Images with Different Meanings in Proverbs

A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 3

Some English and Chinese proverbs share the same images, and people take it for granted that they should have the same connotation, but actually, they contain different or even opposite meanings.For example, “It is a good horse that never stumbles.” and “好马不失蹄”.In this example, the English proverb “It’s a good horse that never stumbles”, is easy to be translated into Chinese “好马不失蹄”.In fact, the English proverb means even a good horse will stumble, so the right translation should be “好马也有失蹄时”.In the following part, the reasons for misunderstandings and the different choice of animal images will be clarified.A.Reasons for misunderstandings

Firstly, sometimes, the old use of grammar remains in the proverbs, and it may mislead our comprehension.The preservation of the old grammatical structure “it’s...that...” is similar to the modern structure in form, but opposite in meaning.The misunderstanding of the English proverb “It’s a good horse that never stumbles” as Chinese proverb “好马不失蹄” is due to this old grammatical structure.Secondly, when people hold different views and attitudes to animals, and their different worldviews toward the same situations, the same animal images may have different or even opposite meanings in different culture, and proverbs containing the same animal images will possibly have different meanings.The seemingly corresponding English and Chinese proverbs may have different connotations.For example: “Dog eats dog” and “狗咬狗”.“Dog eats dog” is always regarded as “狗咬狗”.But actually “Dog eats dog” refers to the phenomenon that people hurt those of the same group, while “狗咬狗” means bad people fight with bad people, so the two proverbs mean differently.B.Factors influencing the choice of animal images in proverbs

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The languages have some universality, but more importantly, they have their own culturally specific features.The culturally specific features are closely related to their religion, special geography, literature and psychology.1.Different religious beliefs Different nations usually believe in different religion.Thus proverbs of perse nations surely express various religious beliefs.In the west, Britain and America are Christian countries with a long history.And Christian as the main belief of them has already taken roots in their lives for ages.Christians believe in the God.The God is the unique and supreme god, while people are born with a sin, and are the same and equal in the face of the God, so the common people respect and worship the God, but disregard the majesty.“A cat may look at a king” reflects this kind of thought.Furthermore, there are some animals endowed with different religious meanings.In Christianity the serpent is the symbol of devil and Satan, while the lamb is the symbol of the God’s people and timidity, and the dragon is the symbol of evil and danger.Serpent enticed Eve to steal fruit of Tree of conscience and she then shared with Adam.In the end they two were kicked out of the Garden of Eden.So in English proverbs, snake has a meaning of cunning.In China, Buddhism has been spread over one thousand years, and the Buddhist culture has been melt into the daily life of the Chinese for a long time.As a result, it is very common that quite a number of Chinese believe in Buddhism.Some Chinese proverbs are about Buddhism.There are proverbs about the strict social classes and roles.Here are some examples.狗肉烧酒穿肠过，佛在心中留。(Buddha in heart, wine and meat will pass through intestines.)狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心。(Don’t snap and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you.)

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2.Different geographic conditions Geographically England is located in the Western Hemisphere, while China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, thus England and China have different climate.They form different living styles.England is an island country, so most Englishman make livings by fishery or navigation.Chinese formed their living style----farming and stock rising.Therefore, there are a great many different proverbs.Firstly, there are some animal proverbs about the special climate in England.If the cock crows on going to bed, he’s sure to rise with a watery head.(公鸡傍晚叫，早晨有雨到。)March comes in with adder heads, and goes out with peacock tails.(三月来如猛狮，去如羔羊。)Furthermore, fishery and navigation are of great importance to English people and it is no wonder that plenty of English proverbs are on fishery or navigation, and a lot on fishes.But in China, the fish does not carry so many national meanings.The following are some English fish proverbs.All is fish that comes to his net.(进网都是鱼。)Fish begins to stink at the head.(鱼烂头先臭。)3.Different literary backgrounds Different nations have different literature, which makes up particular cultural backgrounds of proverbs.On the basis of this, a great many proverbs are often simple in structure but deep in meaning.In order to grasp and translate their deep meanings accurately, we must be clear about the literature.In Chinese there are a lot of animal proverbs originated from various classical works, such as: 二者不可兼得，舍鱼而取熊掌.A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 6

On the other hand, English proverbs also take in the quintessence of many literal works and are in fact the well-known remarks of some famous writers, such as some proverbs of Shakespeare: All cats love fish but fear to wet their paws.(欲吃龙肉，又怕下海。)Patience perforce is medicine for a mad dog.(不得已的忍耐是疯狗的药方。)In brief, both China and English have their perse and colorful literature, which is vividly reflected in their proverbs and as well have constituted the historical and cultural backgrounds of their proverbs.Thus whenever we translate proverbs, it is helpful for us to look into histories and origins of the proverbs and make proper judgments according to the backgrounds.4.Different psychologies Although mankind shares many life experiences and thoughts, and different cultures occasionally have some cultural overlaps, yet on the whole different cultures have different psychology, and people of different cultures hold different attitudes to the same animals.Here we will take animals for examples to explain the different psychology in proverbs of different nations.With the development of human society, many animals play an important role in human life and some of them have become a particular kind of symbolism in people’s mind, and animals in various countries symbolize perse meaning.The connotations of animals in proverbs of one language do not coincide with those in other languages.The different connotative meanings which the animal words carry in different countries are called cultural implication of the word by the famous Chinese professor Wang Dechun, a noted linguist at home.National cultural meaning is an essential signified meaning of the words tinged with an ethnic group’s cultural connotations.In English and Chinese animal images, both similarities and differences exist in national cultural meanings.However the dissimilarities are absolute while the similarities are relative.Both universality and inpiduality lie in different cultural connotations loaded in English and Chinese

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animal proverbs.IV.A brief Introduction of the Proverbs Involved in Several Kinds of Animals A.Proverbs of the dragon(龙)In Chinese and western culture, dragon is the animal existed in the myths and legends.In China dragon is the symbol of auspicious honor.It is a bright contrast that in English dragon is fundamentally evil and cruel.In Chinese culture, dragons symbolize good luck, authority, noble, and prosperity.We Chinese are proud to call ourselves “descendants of the dragon”.In the feudal society, dragon is the emblem of the emperor;the emperors thought they were real dragons and the sons of the heaven.Today dragon is still supreme in the heart of Chinese people.China is called “Oriental Dragon”;dragon is regarded as the totem of the Chinese nation.There are a lot of proverbs about dragon, such as “龙生龙，凤生凤”, “强龙压不过地头蛇”.All these proverbs show that dragon(龙)is a great part in the Chinese culture.However, in English people think that dragon is the representative of the evil, a ferocious monster.The distinctions between Chinese and English culture makes the same animals have different connotation and the choices of animal images are completely different.As a result of this, when we want to use English to express the “龙”, we must take this kind of distinction into consideration.“亚洲四小龙” should be translated as “four tigers” instead of “four dragons”.B.Proverbs with word “bat”(蝙蝠)In English-speaking countries, folks think bat as an evil animal and it is often used with the dark and evil force.So in English, proverbs with word “bat” commonly contain derogatory sense.In “as blind as bat”, it becomes a typical image of blind person with eyes open.Bat also has evil meanings of being absurd and odd.We use

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“have bats in the belfry” or “crazy as a bat” to say that a person is off one’s mind.In the traditional Chinese culture, bat(蝙蝠)is homophonic with “福” which means happiness, luck, and blessing.Therefore, old bat woodcarving and embroidery with bats put up people’s wish of blessing for auspicious and happy life.C.Proverbs of sheep and goats(羊)Because of the influence of The bible, the images of sheep and goat are as like as an apple to an oyster.Proverbs of goats are usually derogatory.“Play the goat” is to act as a fool.In The bible, a shepherd tried to distinguish sheep and goats, and he placed sheep right and put goat in the other side in that wild goats often infiltrated the flock to lure sheep.So that the proverb “separate the sheep from the goats” is to pide good or useful people from bad or useless ones.In the eye of Chinese, they two belong to the same species, and don’t any special implied meanings.The UK is a graziery-developed country and people there prefer to wool products.Owing to this, many wool proverbs spring up.Here are some examples: “pull the wool over one’s eyes”which means using people’s innocence to make a cheat into being, “go for wool and come home shorn”that has the meaning of overshoot oneself and “much cry and little wool” the Chinese meaning of which is “雷声大，雨点小”.D.Proverbs of the owl(猫头鹰)Owl is a clever and witty bird with wisdom, earnest and other culture connotations.Words, as “owlish” and “owlishly”, often apply to describe a man to be smart, resourceful and serious.Also in children’s books and comics, owls are often very intelligent.When dispute appears, the animals will ask owls to coordinate when there is an emergency.But in China, it is totally different.Chinese think that owl is linked with superstitious believes, and people are afraid of hearing their hoot because of a faith

A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 9

that man will be unfortunate when meeting owls.So a Chinese proverb “猫头鹰进宅，好事不来” means adversity is upcoming.An American woman came to China for the first time and knew little about what Chinese thought of owls.She loved owl pins very much and often wore them.She found people around her often point at her when she wore owl pins.Moreover, some of them even stopped to ask him why she wore owl pins which greatly puzzled her.Only when a Chinese told her about the superstitious thought of owl in Chinese eyes, did she stop wearing it in China.E.Proverbs of the cat(猫)The westerner is one of the important members of the “pet culture”.Cat is used to describe the female, model’s stage steps on the runway named catwalk.“Old cat” is old woman of bad temper.“Barber’s cat” is a person with a starved look.“Copy cat” often said by children is a metaphor to kids copying others.There is a proverb that “when the cat is away, the mouse will play”.It tells people that when a power is absent, others will lawless and naughty.Cat in Chinese does not have any similar uses in proverbs.But “山中无老虎，猴子称大王” have the same meaning with this proverb.There are much more examples, the following examples are widely used.1)English:A cat may look at a king./ Chinese:小人物也有权利

2)English:All cats are grey in the dark./ Chinese:不因为美丑就判断别人的好坏 3)English:That’s like putting the cat near the goldfish bowl./ Chinese:引狼入室

Even though cat occasionally exists in Chinese, some cat proverbs are still in use.“猫改不了吃腥” is commonly applied to a person who can not change his long-standing habits.“吃猫食” is just eating like bird.F.Proverbs of the dog(狗)

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Dog is a word that often used in proverbs and we should pay great attention to.As a matter of fact, people in western countries loves dog more than us.In these countries people loves to keep dogs and they usually call themself or others dog with no meaning of dog.Also dogs are titled with a laudatory name as “man’s best friend” in Britain and America.So in English there are many proverb of dogs such as “Every dog has its day”, “Barking dog seldom bite”, “Dog does not eat dog”, “you are a lucky dog”.But in Chinese, many proverb with dogs have bad meanings and often associate with disgusting things such as “狗改不了吃屎”, “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”, “挂羊头，卖狗肉”.All these show that people have no good feelings to dog in the past.Some employers deny people born in the year of the dog.These proverbs contain a derogatory meaning against dogs, and reflect people’s bad impression to the dog.V.The Principles in the Translation of Animal Proverbs

English and Chinese proverbs are from various sources, and they give information about their culture on many social subjects, so there is necessity of a study for translation of English and Chinese proverbs to acquire more information of different nations.Translation is also becoming increasingly important as a medium of international communication.A faithful translation of English and Chinese proverbs will attract the target language readers not only for its vivid and expressive language, but also for much interesting information.Therefore, the purpose of proverb translation isn’t only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the target readers with the culture of other nations and to learn the philosophy and views of the world and life.For this purpose, translators shall pay great attention to keeping the sense and flavor of the original and acquire the highest degree of cultural exchange.The best translation shall contain both the original image and the connotation.Traditionally, there are two major translation methods: literal translation and free

A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 11

translation.Literal translation focuses on the source language, referring to the translation based on the form, while free translation focuses on the target language, referring to the translation based on meaning.Which method shall be more important, and be put at the first place? Translators have been arguing over the question for a long time.Though there are not set rules for translating animal images, translation principles does exist.They are cultural equivalence and validity principles.A.Cultural equivalence principle As far as the cultural transmission is concerned, it implies conveying as much as possible the original cultural information in the translated texts in order to achieve the highest degree of language-culture correspondence between the source language and target language.“Equivalent effect” in translation includes linguistic equivalence, stylistic equivalence and socio-cultural equivalence.With the development of linguistics and the increasing degree of communication between different cultures, the socio-cultural equivalence is becoming more and more important.The translators are not satisfied with only transmitting the meaning, but they want to have an integration of both meaning and form.They want to introduce the original form and meaning to foreign land.In terms of transmitting cultural images, cultural equivalence includes equivalence of both the superficial form and the deep cultural content.In image translation, to convey the form and the content determines whether the superficial information or the deep connotative information of a cultural image is conveyed.The best way to convey cultural images is to combine the form equivalence and the content equivalence.However, cultural equivalence does not mean strict or rigid adherence to the original images.If the formal equivalence and the content equivalence cannot be achieved at the same time, the translation should be flexible, and they could give

A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 12

priority to the content equivalence, and try their best to convey the cultural information contained in the formal image.Otherwise, the rigid adherence to the original form will not get cultural equivalence in the true sense.The focus is how to change forms properly in reproducing similar effects so as to convey cultural information to the largest extent.B.Validity principle As far as image transmission is concerned, the validity principle means the conveyed cultural information must be valid when a translator tries his best to accomplish cultural equivalence principle.The validity principle requires in the first place translators should neither over-domesticate nor over-foreignize cultural images, so as to avoid imagery confrontation and achieve imagery acceptability.The validity principle and cultural equivalence principle are interrelated with and interdependent on each other, but the validity principle is more concerned with the target language readers.If the translated image makes no sense to the target language readers or causes misunderstanding to them, all the work done by the translator is futile.For example: “It’s raining cats and dogs”.If we translate it into “天上下猫和狗了”, the translation will be absurd to Chinese people.Although the original images are kept, the translation is invalid, so the better translation may be the deletion of the original images: “天上下着瓢泼大雨”.In conclusion, the translation of cultural image is complex.We shall try our best to knit the foreignization and domestication flexibly, and follow the principles of cultural equivalence and validity.VI.Conclusion

The translation of proverbs and animal images is really a complex and delicate work.It should be kept in mind that the main purpose of translation is to transmit different cultures.In translation, the traits of culture shall be remained as much as

A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 13

possible, and the two principles of cultural equivalence and validity should be followed.As translators, we shall try our best to find the most appropriate translation which is not only faithful to the meaning, but also keeps the original cultural colors.There is not a settled way as to what kind of translation is the best because the culture is forever changing with the time.The formerly strange proverbs may be considered as natural with the widening communication and rapid globalization.Therefore the translation of proverbs shall always catch up with the time.Translation should also be in harmony with the kind of the writing and purpose of writing.Also, the translation of the same proverb and the same animal image may be different if the context changes, sometimes original colors shall be kept, but sometimes they should be deleted.A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 14

Bibliography [1] Bassett.Cultural Elements in Translation[J].Translation Journal, 1980, 6(3): 22-26.[2] National Research Council.China and Global Change: Opportunities for Collaboration[M].Washington: Natal.Acad., 1992.[3] Newmark, Peter.Approaches to Translation[M].New York: Pergamon Press, 1982.[4] Nida, E.A.Language, Culture and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.[5] Samovar, Porter.Intercultural Communication[M].New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1997.[6] 陈骋.汉英习语的文化差异及其翻译[J].江西社会科学, 2002,(12): 28-32.[7] 陈建芳.论英语动物词的语义特征与翻译[J].湘潭大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 1998,(2): 27-36.[8] 丁菲菲.交际中的文化动物词及翻译策略[J].集美大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2001,(4): 12-14.[9] 丁军.实用英语翻译[M].北京: 电子工业出版社, 2005: 34-35.[10] 何善芬.英语语言对比研究[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002.[11] 李桂玲.英汉谚语的语音结构与修辞[J].重庆交通学院学报.2002,(2): 48-52.[12] 李青.动物类谚语和习语的翻译[J].昌潍师专学报, 2001,(3): 43-47.[13] 李悦.英汉动物词的文化内涵比较及其翻译[J].中南大学学报(社会科学版), 2003,(5): 23-25.[14] 刘金生.英汉动物词语文化内涵及差异[J].莱阳农学院学报(社会科学版), 2000,(1): 13-14.[15] 欧忆, 贾德江.英汉动物类习语比较及其翻译[J].中国科技翻译, 2001,(4): 26-28.[16] 彭庆华.英语习语研究——语用学视角[M].北京: 社会科学文献出版社, 2007.[17]平洪, 张国杨.英语习语与文化[M].北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2000.[18] 覃先美.英语动物文化考释[M].长沙: 国防科技大学出版社, 2002.[19] 汪福祥, 蔡坚.英语谚语妙用500例[M].北京: 外文出版社, 2001.[20] 王德春.汉英谚语与文化[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2003.[21] 王晓丽.动物形象英语成语的翻译[J].齐齐哈尔大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2002,(5):

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32-33.[22] 徐宏亮.英汉比喻喻体的国俗语义比较[J].广西社会科学, 2003,(9): 58-61.[23] 杨自俭.英汉语比较与翻译[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002.[24] 张培基.英汉翻译教程[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1991.[25] 张廷芳.狗年话狗[M].北京: 中国科学技术出版社, 2006.[26] 朱文俊.现代英语语言和文化研究[M].北京: 北京语言学院出版社, 1994.A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Animal Proverbs 16

Acknowledgements First, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all the respected professors and teachers from whom I have learned not only the knowledge but also the way of related disciplines, and serious attitude to do research work.Second, I would like to express my hearty appreciation to my teacher Feng yan and Liao suyun for their rigorous and expert direction.Their effective guidance research enabled me to implement the work smoothly.Their insightful comments on the study have been both encouraging and helpful.Their constant help and care have always inspired me to learn more.Their kindness also offers me lots of good materials.Thirdly, I would like to thank the librarians in our campus library, for they have helped me to find various reference books needed for my study.

第三篇：英汉语言对比研究论文

摘要

随着科学技术的迅猛发展和经济全球化，各国人们之间的交流已是一个必然趋势，我们对外交往中，跨文化的言语交际也显得愈发重要。

语言是文化的载体，文化差异反映到语言层面上则表现为语言差异，不同的国家和民族的语言表现出的文化背景和思维模式都有所不同，因此我们有必要把英语与母语进行对比分析，进一步认识英语和母语的特性与差异，从而促进文化交际。

本文将从语言与文化、综合语与分析语、刚性与柔性、形合与意合，四个角度对英汉两种语言进行对比与分析，从细节之处去感受两种语言的微妙差别，从而对英语的学习有更深刻的认识。

关键词： 语言与文化 综合语与分析语 刚性与柔性

形合与意合 英汉两种语言

内容

一、引言

二、教材篇

1.语言与文化

2.综合语与分析语

3.刚性与柔性

4.形合与意合

三、课堂篇

四、疑惑篇

五、结语

英汉对比研究

语言是一面镜子，它反映着一个民族的文化，揭示该民族文化的内容；语言既是社会的产物，又是人类历史和文化的结晶。同时语言与文化互相影响，互相作用;理解语言必须了解文化，理解文化必须了解语言。

汉语和英语则是在不同的历史背景和社会形态中形成的两种截然不同的语种，本质上都浸透着各自民族文化的特征，但是由于东西方不同的历史文化背景又使得汉英两种语言在交流中产生了碰撞。

本文将从语言与文化、综合语与分析语、刚性与柔性、形合与意合，四个角度对英汉两种语言进行对比与分析，进一步认识英语和母语的特性与差异从而对英语的学习有更深刻的认识，进而促进文化交际。

一、教材篇

1.语言与文化

语言和文化之间有着必不可分的内在联系：一方面，语言是文化的一个重要的因素，另一方面，文化的许多要素需要借助语言来表达，即：语言是文化的重要载体，文化是语言的管轨。语言是文化的基石——没有语言，就没有文化；语言又受文化的影响，反映文化。可以说，语言反映一个民族的特征，它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景，而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。

随着科学技术的迅猛发展和经济全球化，各国人们之间的交流已是一个趋势和必然。由于英语国家与中国有不同的风俗，信仰，道德价值观，历史，等文化上的差异，这些差异又通过语言表现出来。新的历史条件对英语教师和英语教学都提出了新的要求。在文化交流全球化的背景下，新的教学方法和手段不断涌现。英语教师面临更多的挑战和机遇。

因此，对于英语专业的我来说，要学好英语，就要用对比分析的手段来找出中西语言以及中西文化的差异，从而摆脱母语的思维方式和使用习惯来理解英语。同时了解英美国家的文化传统、风俗习惯、文学历史等方面的知识，将语言与文化结合，才能更好的去学习这门语言，减少交流的障碍。

2．综合语与分析语

综合语的特征是运用形态变化来表达语法关系，分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用词序及虚词来表达语法关系。其中形态变化，词序和虚词是表达语法关系的三大手段。汉语为典型的分析语，英语为综合-分析语。

首先，英语有形态变化，而汉语则没有严格意义的形态变化。形态变化主要体现在构词形态和构形形态上。在构词方面，英语的词缀灵活多变，有大量的前缀、后缀，而汉语则不多见。在构形方面，英语常常是将动词、助动词和情态动词结合起来表示时态、语态和语气的变化，而汉语同一个词就可以表示主格、宾格，单数、复数，或者现在、过去等行为。其次，英语词序较灵活，汉语则较固定。英语词序倒置的现象比较多，汉语 主要表现为功能性倒装。汉语的定语一般在名词前，英语定语位置较灵活。再次，虚词方面，英语经常使用定冠词、不定冠词、介词和连接词，汉语则没有冠词，表并列和从属关系的连接词的使用率也较低，较常使用的是丰富多彩的助词，如动态助词、语气助词等。最后，英语是语调语言，汉语是声调语言。语调和重音的变化是英语语音的主要表意手段，两者的密切配合可以表达意义的差别，而汉语的语音手段主要是声调。汉语语音音节匀称，具有均衡美和节奏美。

3.刚性与柔性

1)英语的刚性

英语句子有严谨的主谓结构，句子主次分明，层次清楚，多层递进，前呼后拥，严密规范，句型重形合，句式为“聚集型”。英语的主谓结构有五种基本句型，即 SV, SVP，SVO，SVoO，SVOC，而上述句型和变式可以通过增加修饰语，扩展基本句型的成分，基本句型的组合、省略、倒装等方式来扩展。英语注重句子结构完整，通过形态标志、连接词和填补词的使用来保持其完整性。此外，句子成分、词语之间必须在人称、数、性和意义等方面保持协调一致的关系，即：语法一致、意义一致、就近原则等，其也是英语句子呈“聚集型”的重要因素。英语受形态变化约束，有词性标记和关系词及连接词，语句关系结构比较清楚，因此语法歧义较少。

2)汉语的柔性

汉语不受形态的约束，没有主谓协调一致的关系，其主谓结构具有多样性、复杂性和灵活性，句型重意合，句式呈“流散型”。汉语的主谓结构要比英语复杂的多。汉语的主语形式多样，可有可无，即：它可以表示施事、受事，也可以表示时间地点，可用名词、动词，也可用形容词、数量词，句子可以没有主语，也可以省略主语，还可以变换主语予以隐含；谓语也复杂的多，即：它可以是动词，名词和形容词，可以是一个动词，也可以是多个动词，可以是一个单词，也可以是多个词组，可以是连动式、兼语式、把字式、紧缩式和主谓式。按表意功能和表达形式，汉语句型可以分为话题句、施事句、关系句、祈使句、描写句、说明句等。此外，汉语句式有完全句也有大量的不完全句两者混合交错，组成流水句。汉语缺乏形态变化和词性标记，较少使用连接词，重意会，因此语法歧义较多。

总之，英语重形合，词有形态变化，造句注重形式接应，要求结构完整，句子以形寓意，以法摄神，语法呈现显性，刚性，因而严密规范，采用的是焦点句法，具有严谨的客体意识：汉语重意合，字词缺乏形态变化，造句注重意念连贯，不求结构齐整，句子以意役形，以神统法，语法呈现隐性、柔性，因而流泻铺排，采用的是散点句法，具有灵活的主体意识。

4.形合与意合

形合指的是词语或分句之间用语言形式手段连接起来，表达语法意义和逻辑关系，意合指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，其中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。英语造句主要采用形，汉语造句主要采用意合法。

1）英语的形合法

英语造句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句，注重显性接应、句子形式、结构完整，比较严谨；英语通常综合运用关系词、连接词、介词和其他连接手段、形式，把各种成分连接起来，构成长短句子来表达一定的语法关系和逻辑联系。意合法在英语里属于“变态”，主要是一些简练谚语、表达复合句内容的简单句，以及表达状语从句意义的定语从句。

2）汉语的意合法

汉语造句少用甚至不用形式连接手段，注重隐性连贯、逻辑事理顺序，比较简洁。汉语的意合法的手段有语序、反复、排比、对偶、四字格等。汉语的许多主从复合句，虽然不用关联词，形式类似并列复句，但分句含义却有主次之分。紧缩句句式简明紧凑，分句之间的语法关系和逻辑关系往往是隐含的，四字格是汉语运用最广的语言形式。

二、课堂篇

1.对比

对比是比较的基础，其目的是求同与求异，寻找共性与个性。2．智慧

理想是书籍，是智慧的钥匙，书是传播智慧的工具，因此要学会欣赏智慧。3.思维方式

我们要形成“归纳，分析”的思维方式，归纳出属性的共性，分析属性的异性 4.言语和语言

语言是社会生活的客观现象，对于使用某个语种的人来说是统一的，每种语言都是有发言、语法、句法方面的一整套确定的规则，这些 规则一经产生，就有着较大的稳定性。而言语则是一种心理现象，它表明的是一种心理交流的过程，它就具有个体性和多变性。言语是语言现象，是预料和语言事实，语言是从言语中概括和抽象出来的。

语言是交流思想的工具，是表达观念的符号系统，是由关系联系起来的共存要素构成的系统是由形式极和意义极两极构成的象征系统。（此处的系统是指把不同要素统一起来形成一个整体，并且整体具有它的功能）我们要用继承、批判和创新的眼光来看待语言。语言反映的是以人的方式所认识的东西，而语言的结构反映的是人以人的方式所认识的世界。世界是不可知的，但我们可以用我们的方式认识世界，这就是所谓的可知论。语言促进了科学和哲学的萌芽，它反映了物质所具有的属性。理解语言，理解句子，唯一可靠的是逻辑，语言的同一性是主谓一致。语言学的特征是设计特征。

5.语言的要素

语言的要素是词，任何语言，事物意义都是相对于其他事物来确定。陈述肯定事实是从已知信息到未知信息。例如：There is a school by the lake.其中there是已知信息，a school 是未知信息。There is a school 是新信息，by the lake 是旧信息。此外，否定词提前，构成已知信息。例如：I don’t like math, nor does he.前一部分是已知信息，后一部分是未知信息。关于状语，汉语中疑问助词放在句尾，而英语疑问词放在句头。6.英汉语的复杂句子结构特点

英语是复杂句，以两个中心聚集，是树型结构，汉语以散句居多，是竹节型结构。

1）英语句子是聚集型，因为有很多关系词，如连词、介词等，靠“关系词”来排列语序，聚集在中心树型词两边。英语注重主语的客观化，为避免头重脚轻，主语用形式主语代替，按“先果后因”的顺序来排列语序。英语的定语可放在被修饰词的左右两边，是左右分支。2）汉语句子靠语序来表达句子成分关系，按自然顺序来排列语序。汉语的定语只能放在被休是词的左边，是左分支。汉语句子具有口语的特点。7.翻译的步骤

1）关系分析 2）寻找基本句型 3）其他成分的扩展

8.如何研究句子？

词是句子的单位，句子则是语篇的单位。句子是由概念和关系组合的结构，也是形义两极的象征结构。所谓句法，从传统上讲，它是由词构成；从语义上讲，它是概念或理念的组合；从语义功能上讲，它是“述谓结构”，表达完整的关系；此处的“述谓”就是对对象进行阐述或描述。“述谓结构”分两种情况，因为语义是逻辑问题，全世界的语义逻辑是一样的，所以从逻辑学上讲是变元+谓词，所谓的变元是不定的变化的词，是描述的对象；二就是论元。从句法功能上讲，它是主谓结构或NP+VP结构，此处的VP可以是形容词性词语也可以是动词性词语;从传达的信息上讲，它的基本格式是“话题+说明”。9．分类层次原则：

1）标准的同一性 2）对象的穷尽性 3）归属的唯一性

根据这种分类层次原则，我们把英语主谓结构归为五种基本句型，即：

1）主语+动词 2）主语+动词+表语 3）主语+动词+宾语

4）主语+动词+间接宾语+直接宾语 5）主语+动词+宾语+宾语补足语。

把汉语按照表意功能及表达形式分为七大类，即：

1）话题句，其格式是“话题+说明”；

2）主谓句，包括“施事句”、“有无句”、“描写句”、“说明句”；

3）关系句，既表达各种关系的复句；

4）紧缩句，由复句紧缩而成，表达复句的并列、转折、假设、条件、因果、让步等关系；

5）存现句，即表示人或事物存在或消失的句子； 6）呼叹句，即交谈中互相呼唤、应对或感叹的句子； 7）祈使句，即表达要求、命令或请求的句子。10．认知方式 任何一个结果必然隐含着一个认知过程或一个认知方式。苏轼有诗云：“横看成岭侧成峰远近高低各不同，不识庐山真面目，只缘身在此山中”。从而可以看出认知过程的不同，即：认知事物的远近高低的不同、相对认知标准的不同、局内局外认知的结果不同、参照物的不同，其得到的结果也就不同。例如：介词over原意是通过；关于；遍及；翻越。但搭配不同，意思也就不同，如look over 眺望，fall over 跌倒，turn over 翻阅，throw over推翻。不同领域之间有共性，跨域共性，但认知方式不同，得到的结果也就不同，而以上over介词的意思就是来自于认知方式。11.总结英语的刚性：

1）英语表达的语法关系和语法概念你的曲折变化是刚性的。

2)英语的句法结构有刚性，表现在一下四个方面： 

英语的语法结构必须是严格的主谓结构，主谓不能少,省略例外。

 英语的省略是刚性的及英语的省略条件也是刚性的。并列句中的省略，回答问题时的省略，祈使句中的省略，感叹句中的省略。

 英语的主谓之间通常有逻辑关系

 英语的主谓结构严格的分为5种基本句型，且所有的 句子必须是这五种句型的变化和扩展 3)英语的基本句型严格规定了它的基本要素。4)英语重形合，汉语重意合

5)英语形合意也合，汉语形散意也散。12．语言的歧义

每一种语言都有歧义，而汉语的歧义要比英语多。其原因是英语有形态变化，遵循主谓一致和逻辑对应，因此歧义较少，然而汉语缺乏形态变化和词性标记以及连接词，且重意会，略语形式，严重依赖语境，一次歧义较多。13.英语的最大特点是模具制造，严格按句型和逻辑来。14．词有活用，没有固定类别，词性的确定取决于它的位置和功能，即词无定类，词无定义。

三、疑惑篇

学完这本教材前三章以后我也有一些困惑，例如为什么语言学家把汉语归类为分析语，把英语归类为综合分析语？我在网上百度了一下，说汉语是一种逻辑性很强的语言，逻辑自然表示在语言形式之中。而英文的逻辑性十分混乱，所以，才产生了一种超越语法的逻辑学。汉语归类于《分析语》，英语归类于《综合——分析语》，含义就在于此。看了这个答案还是感觉模棱两可，抽象难懂。还有翻译课堂上老师讲过，英译汉要拆，汉译英要合，这也体现了英汉两种语言的差别，但是我在汉译英时总是会遇到一些困难，我不知道通过这本书的学习，能不能帮我解决这些困难，提高我的翻译技能。此外，本书第二章说英语句式呈刚性，严格按句型和逻辑来，这应该是书面语的要求吧，日常生活中的口头语就没那么严格了，例如：遇到一些特殊场景时，句型、语法什么的都抛之脑后了。而汉语句式呈柔性，句子灵活多变，但是在书面语中，也是要求很严格的，否则句子就读不通，表意模糊。那么这种分类是不是也是相对而说的呢？

四、结语

中国文化博大精深，源远流长，作为文化的载体——汉字，更是贯穿古今风雨中的一件中国独有的国宝。汉语虽是我们的母语，但我们还得花更长的时间去学习，去钻研。带着根深蒂固的中式思维去学习英语是很不容易的事，不仅要学习他的文化传统、风俗习惯、文学历史，还要培养西方思维去学习去体会他的魅力。虽然我还有很多疑惑的地方，但是，学会用“归纳，分析”的思维方式去探索语言，深入去钻研，从英汉两种语言的细微差别中去领略中西思维的奥妙，我相信会有豁然开朗的一天。找到正确的方法，从而更好的去学习英语，学习西方的文化，提高自己的机能，更好的去交流，适应当今社会的发展。

第四篇：英汉衔接手段对比研究

英汉衔接手段对比研究

【摘 要】衔接手段的恰当运用是文章连贯的重要因素。文章根据韩礼德和哈桑的衔接理论，以《阐述“中国梦”――习近平就职后第一次发言》和《重塑“美国梦”――奥巴马胜任演讲》两篇经典演讲为例，对比分析英汉衔接手段在实际运用中的异同。

【关键词】衔接手段 对比 英汉 相似性 差异性

一、引言

1976年，韩礼德和哈桑出版了Cohesion in English（《英语中的衔接》）一书，阐述了衔接是贯穿语篇的语义链条，是构成语篇中话语组织的纽带，是构成语篇连贯性的重要因素[1]。该书详细论述了指称、替代、省略、连接、重复、同义关系、上下义关系和词汇搭配八种衔接手段。

在学者研究的基础上，我们发现英汉语篇衔接手段的种类大致相同，但是由于英汉语言在思维习惯和表达方式上的不同，导致英汉语篇衔接手段的具体使用存在一定的差异。本文以《阐述“中国梦”――习近平就职后第一次发言》和《重塑“美国梦”――奥巴马胜任演讲》两篇经典演讲为例，对比分析英汉衔接手段在实际运用中的异同。

二、英汉衔接手段对比

（一）相似性

1.指称

指称（Reference）是指语篇中的一个成分做另一个成分的参照点，能够有效提示语篇中已经出现过或者尚未出现的内容[2]。在两篇演讲中，以人称指称为例，演讲者能够运用它帮助听众理解具体所指对象是谁。

例如，在奥巴马“美国梦”演讲词中，用“I”指代自己，“you”指代听众，“we”指代所有人。