第一篇：英语课文翻译

Apology of Socrates

Let us reflect and we shall see that there is great reason to hope that death is a good;for one of two things — either death is a state of nothingness and utter(完全的)unconsciousness, or, as men say, there is a change and migration of the soul from this world to another.Now if you suppose that there is no consciousness, but a sleep like the sleep of him who is undisturbed even by dreams, death will be an unspeakable gain.For if a person were to select the night in which his sleep was undisturbed by dreams, and were to compare with this the other days and nights of his life, and then were to tell us how many days and nights he had passed in the course of his life better and more pleasantly than this one, I think that any man, I will not say a private man, but even the great king will not find many such days and nights, when compared with the others.Now if death be of such a nature, I say that to die is a gain;for eternity is then only a single night.But if death is the journey to another place, and there, as men say, all the dead abide, what good, my friends and judges, can be greater than this? 我们如果从另一角度来思考死亡，就会发觉有绝大理由相信死亡是件好事。死亡可能是以下两种情形其中之一：或者完全没有知觉的虚无状态，或是人们常说的一套，灵魂经历变化，由这个世界移居到另一个世界。

倘若你认为死后并无知觉，死亡犹如无梦相扰的安眠，那么死亡真是无可形容的得益了。如果某人要把安恬无梦的一夜跟一生中的其它日子相比，看有多少日子比这一夜更美妙愉快，我想他说不出有多少天。不要说平民，就是显赫的帝王也如此。

如果这就是死亡的本质，永恒不过是一夜。倘若死亡一如人们常说的那样，只是迁徙到另一个世界，那里寄居了所有死去的人，那么，我的诸位朋友，法官，还有什么事情比这样来得更美妙呢？

If indeed when the pilgrim arrives in the world below, he is delivered from the professors of justice in this world, and finds the true judges who are said to give judgment there, Minos and Rhadamanthus and Aeacus and Triptolemus, and other sons of God who were righteous(正直的)in their own life, that pilgrimage will be worth making.What would not a man give if he might converse with Orpheus and Musaeeus and Hesiod and Homer? Nay, if this be true, let me die again.I myself, too, shall have a wonderful interest in there meeting and conversing with Palamedes, and Ajax the son of Telamon, and any other ancient hero who has suffered death through an unjust judgment;and there will be no small pleasure, as I think, in comparing my own suffering with theirs.Above all, I shall then be able to continue my search into true and false knowledge;as in this world, so also in the next;and I shall find out who is wise, and who pretends to be wise, and who is not.What would not a man give, my judges, to be able to examine the leader of the great Trojan expedition(远征);or Odysseus or Sisyphus, or numberless others, men and women too!What infinite delight would there be in conversing with them and asking them questions!In another world they do not put a man to death for asking questions;assuredly not.For besides being happier than we are, they will be immortal, if what is said is true.假若这游历者到达地下世界时，摆脱了尘世的审判官，却在这里碰见真淳正直的法官迈诺、拉达门塞斯、阿克斯、特立普托马斯，以及一生公正的诸神儿子，那么这历程就确实有意义了。如果可以跟俄耳甫斯、谬萨尤斯、赫西亚德、荷马相互交谈，谁不愿意舍弃一切？要是死亡真是这样，我愿意不断受死。

我很希望碰见帕拉默底斯、蒂拉蒙的儿子埃杰克斯以及受不公平审判而死的古代英雄，和他们一起与某人交谈。我相信互相比较我们所受的苦难会是件痛快的事情。

更重要的是，我可以像在这个世界时一样，在那个新世界里继续探求事物的真伪，我可以认清谁是真正的才智仁人，谁只是假装聪明。

法官们啊，谁不愿舍弃一切，以换取机会研究这远征特洛伊的领袖——奥德修斯、西昔法斯和无数其他的男男女女！他们交谈，向他们请教，将是何等快乐的事情！在那个世界里，绝不会有人仅仅因为发问而被处死！如果传说属实，住在那里的人除了比我们快乐之外，还能得到永生。

Wherefore, my judges, be of good cheer about death, and know of a certainty, that no evil can happen to a good man, either in life or after death.He and his are not neglected by the gods;nor has my own approaching end happened by mere chance.I am not angry with my condemners, or with my accusers;they have done me no harm, although they did not mean to do me any good;and for this I may gently blame them.Still I have a favor to ask of them.When my sons are grown up, I would ask you, my friends, to punish them, and I would have you trouble them, as I have troubled you, if they seem to care about riches, or anything, more than about virtue;or if they pretend to be something when they are nothingI to die, and you to live.Which is better only God knows.法官们啊，不必为死亡而感到丧气，要知道善良的人无论生前死后都不会遭恶果，他和家人不会为诸神抛弃。快要降临在我身上的结局非偶然发生。我清楚知道现在对我来说，死亡比在世更佳。我可以摆脱一切烦恼，因为未有神谕显现。为了同样的理由，我不怨恨起诉者或是将我判死罪的人，他们虽对我不怀善意，却未令我受害。不过，我可要稍稍责怪他们的不怀善意。

可是我仍然要请你们为我做一件事情。诸位朋友，我的几个儿子成年后，请为我教导他们。如果他们把财富或其它事物看得比品德重，请像我烦劝你们那样烦劝他们。如果他们自命不凡，那么，请像我谴责你们那样谴责他们，因为他们忽视了事物的本质，本属藐小而自命不凡。你们倘能这样做，我和我的儿子便会自你们手中得到公正。

离别的时刻到了，我们得各自上路——我走向死亡，你们继续活着。至于生与死孰优，只有神明方知。

The Three New Yorks

There are roughly three New Yorks.There is, first, the New York of the man or woman who was born here, who takes the city for granted and accepts its size and its turbulence as natural and inevitable.Second, there is the New York of the commuter — the city that is devoured(充满)by locusts(蝗虫)each day and spat out(吐出)each night.Third, there is the New York of the person who was born somewhere else and came to New York in quest of something.Of these three trembling cities the greatest is the last — the city of final destination, the city that is a goal.It is this third city that accounts for New Yorks high-strung(高度紧张的)disposition, its poetical deportment, and its dedication to the arts, and its incomparable achievements.Commuters give the city its tidal(潮汐的)restlessness, natives give it solidarity(团结)and continuity, but the settlers give it passion.Whether it is a farmer arriving from Italy to set up a small grocery store in a slum(贫民窟), or a young girl arriving from a small town in Mississippi to escape the indignity(侮辱)of being observed by her neighbors, or a boy arriving from the Corn Belt with a manuscript(手稿)in his suitcase and a pain in his heart, it makes no difference: each embraces(拥抱)New York with the intense excitement of first love, each absorbs New York with the fresh eyes of an adventurer, each generates heat and light to dwarf the Consolidated Edison Company.大致说来，有三个纽约。首先是那些土生土长的男男女女的纽约，他们对这座城市习以为常，认为它有这样的规模和喧嚣，乃是自然而然、不可避免的。其次是家住郊区、乘公交车到市内上班的人们的纽约——这座城市每到白天就被如蝗的人群吞噬进去，每到晚上又给吐出来。第三是外来人的纽约，他们生于他乡，到纽约来寻求机缘。在这三座充满骚动的城市中，最了不起的是最后一座——那座被视为最终归宿的城市，视为追寻目标的城市。正是由于这第三座城市，纽约才有了紧张的特性、诗人的气质、对艺术的执着追求和无与伦比的成就。上班族给纽约带来了潮汐般时涨时落的骚动，当地人保证了纽约的稳固和持续发展，而外来人则赋予纽约以激情。

无论是从意大利来到贫民窟开小杂货店的农夫，还是从密西西比州某小镇跑出来躲避邻居的淫秽目光的年轻姑娘，还是从玉米地带满怀酸楚地拎着手稿跑来的小伙子，情况都没有什么两样：每个人都怀着初恋的激情拥抱纽约，每个人都以冒险家的新奇目光审视纽约，每个人散发出的光和热，足以令爱迪生联合电气公司相形见绌。

The commuter is the queerest bird of all.The suburb he inhabits(居住)has no essential vitality(活力)of its own and is a mere roost(栖木)where he comes at day’s end to go to sleep.Except in rare cases, the man who lives in Mamaroneck or Little Neck or Teaneck, and works in New York, discovers nothing much about the city except the time of arrival and departure of train and buses, and the path to a quick lunch.He is desk-bound, and has never, idly(空闲地)roaming(漫步)in the gloaming(黄昏), stumbled suddenly on Belvedere Tower in the park, seen the ramparts(壁垒)rise sheer from the water of the pond, and the boys along the shore fishing for minnows, girls stretched out negligently(疏忽地)on the shelves of the rocks;he has never come suddenly on anything at all in New York as a loiterer(混日子的人), because he had no time between trains.He has fished in Manhattan’s wallet and dug out coins, but has never listened to Manhattan’s breathing, never awakened to its morning, never dropped off to sleep in its night.上班族是天下最怪异的人。他们居住的郊区没有自身的勃勃生机，仅仅是他们晚上回来睡觉的栖息所。那些住在马马罗内克、利特尔内克、蒂内克，到纽约上班的人，除个别情况外，对这座城市了无所知，只晓得火车汽车到站离站的时间、去快餐店的路径。这些人整日伏案工作，从来没有闲暇徜徉在暮色之中，意外地走到公园里的观景塔跟前，瞧见湖中突兀而起的防护堤，沿着湖边钓米诺鱼的男孩，大大咧咧地舒展着身子躺在石台上的女孩。他们从未在纽约游游逛逛偶然遇见什么，因为他们从下火车到再上火车，这中间是没有闲工夫的。他们把手伸到曼哈顿的钱包里捞钱，抓到几个微不足道的小钱，但却从未聆听过曼哈顿的鼻息，从未在醒来时见到曼哈顿的早晨，也从未在曼哈顿的夜幕中入睡过。

About 400,000 men and women come charging onto to the Island each week-day morning, out of the mouths of tubes and tunnels.Not many among them have ever spent a drowsy(昏昏欲睡的)afternoon in the great rustling(瑟瑟声)oaken(橡木制的)silence of the reading room of the Public Library, with the book elevator(like an old water wheel)spewing out(涌出)books onto the trays(托盘).They tend their furnaces(炉子)in Westchester and in Jersey, but have never seen the furnaces of the Bowery, the fires that burn in oil drums on zero winter nights.They may work in the financial district downtown and never see the extravagant(奢侈的)plantings of Rockefeller Center—the daffodils(水仙花)and grape hyacinths(麝香兰)and birches(桦树)of the flags trimmed to the wind on the fine morning in spring.Or they may work in a midtown office and may let a whole year swing round without sighting Governor’s Island from the sea wall.The commuter dies with tremendous mileage to his credit, but he is no rover(流浪者).His entrances and exits are more devious(弯曲的)than those in a prairie-dog village;and he calmly plays bridge while his train is buried in the mud at the bottom of the East River.The Long Island Rail Road alone carried forty million commuters last year;but many of them were the same fellow retracing his steps.每个工作日的早晨，大约有40万男男女女走出地道口、隧道口，涌上曼哈顿岛。他们之中没有多少人跑到公共图书馆沉寂得只能听到沙沙声的阅览室，懒洋洋地度过一个下午，看着图书传送机像旧水轮一样，将书吐在书盘里。他们在韦斯特切斯特和泽西烧火炉，却从未见过鲍厄里街在气温降至零度的冬夜用油桶烧火取暖。他们可能在市中心的金融区工作，却从未见过洛克菲勒中心那枝繁叶茂的花木—春光明媚的早晨，黄水仙、风信子和莺尾花，齐崭崭地迎风摇曳。他们的办公地点可能位于商业区和居住区之间，可是一年到头也没从海堤上眺望过加弗纳斯岛。上班族一生中有着惊人的行程，但是从未东游西逛过。他们进进出出的地方比草原犬鼠的地洞群还要曲曲弯弯。即使火车陷进东河底的淤泥中，他们也会若无其事地只管打桥牌。去年，仅长岛铁路就运载了4千万上班族，只不过许多人是反反复复往返乘车罢了。

The terrain of New York is such that a resident sometimes travels farther,in the end,than a commuter.The journey of the composer Irving Berlin from Cherry Street in the lowest East Side to an apartment uptown was through an alley and only three or four miles in lenth;but it was like going three times around the world.纽约的地形比较特别：有时，这里的常住居民最终会比上班族走的路还要远。作曲家Irving Berlin从下东区的切里街走到住宅区的住所，中间只经过一个小巷，只有三、四公里的距离；但他却像绕地球走了3圈。

New York will bestow the gift of loneliness and the gift of privacy.It is this largess that accounts for the presence within the city's walls of a considerable section of the population;for the residents of Manhattan are to a large extent strangers who have pulled up stakes somewhere and come to town, seeking sanctuary or fulfillment or some greater or lesser grail.The capacity to make such dubious gifts is a mysterious quality of New York.It can destroy an inpidual, or it can fulfill him, depending a good deal on luck.No one should come to New York to live unless he is willing to be lucky.纽约会送上两件礼物：孤寂和私密。正是这种大度解释了城市人口中相当一部分人的存在，因为曼哈顿居民中多的是异乡客，他们背井离乡，到这儿来寻求庇护，或实现抱负，要不就是追求别的什么大大小小的目标。得以向人送上如此不成其为礼物的礼物，乃是纽约一种谜一般的特质，它可毁掉一个人，也可成全他，很大程度上全看此人运气如何。不愿交好运的人可别来纽约居住。

Although New York often imparts a feeling of great forlornness or forsakenness, it seldom seems dead or unresourceful;and you always feel that either by shifting your location ten blocks or by reducing your fortune by five dollars you can experience rejuvenation.Many people who have no real independence of spirit depend on the city’s tremendous variety and sources of excitement for spiritual sustenance and maintenance of morale.In the country there are a few chances of sudden rejuvenation—a shift in weather, perhaps, or something arriving in the mail.But in New York the chances are endless.I think that although many persons are here from some excess of spirit(which caused them to break away from their small town), some, too, are here from a deficiency of spirit, who find in New York a protection, or an easy substitution.纽约虽说时常给人一种沉重的失落感或被遗弃感，城市却难得显出死气沉沉或一筹莫展的样子，反倒是你总拥有一种希望：越过10条马路搬次家，或是花去5美元，就能重新焕发青春。许多缺乏独立精神的人依赖城市巨大的多样性和兴奋源，来求得精神上的耐久力并保持振奋。在乡下，青春得以突然重新焕发的偶然机会不是没有 —— 也许是天气的骤变，要不收到一封让你惊喜的邮件。可是在纽约，这样的机会无穷无尽。在我看来，尽管有不少人是由于精神追求过度到这儿来的（这使他们逼着自己离开小城），也有些人是因为精神贫乏到纽约来的，并在此找到了保护或是轻而易举得到了易地取代的报偿。

Celebrating Entrepreneurs I want to tell Jack Ma what an honor it is to be here representing the United States Embassy, representing the people of America, representing so many friends in China – many of whom you trade with, invest with, you’ve studied with in university and schools in China and the United States.It truly is an honor to be here in Hangzhou.I think Hangzhou is perhaps the most beautiful city in all of China.It is historic, it is sophisticated(复杂的，久经世故的), it is culture, and it is the home of the Alibaba gathering – in its 7th year in a row.And it’s just an unbelievable opportunity to be able to look out at so many representatives of emerging industry and business here in China.I am just so very honored to be here.You know so much more about the issues and the subject matter than I do.我想告诉马云，非常容幸能来到这里，代表美国大使馆，代表美国人民，代表中国这么多的朋友，在座的很多人都是在美国学习或者是美国人交朋友，做生意，有很多的交往，真的非常高兴来到杭州这个美丽的城市，我认为杭州在整个中国最漂亮的城市了。它是历史名城，一个成熟有底蕴的城市，有深厚的文化底蕴，而且是阿里巴巴的网商大会的一个主场。而且看到来自这么多网商在中国正在冉冉升起的一个网络行业，网商的行业的年轻人，我相信大家对这个主题比我了解的更多，所以对我来说我其实在这里就是在班门弄斧了。

Now, the main reason for coming to Hangzhou today is to offer up a challenge, and it starts with many of you right here in this room.The challenge is simple, it goes like this: entrepreneurs of the world, it is time to unite.I'm convinced this is a historic time for our two countries to unite around issues of innovation and the development, advancement, and protection of ideas--the fuel that fires the engines of entrepreneurs everywhere in the world, leveling the playing field, of all competitors.来到杭州主要的原因其实对我来说也是一个挑战，你们今天来了很多人，其实这个挑战就是很简单的，我这么说吧，是在座的企业精神可以联合的，企业家团结起来。我很相信这一点，这是一个历史性的时刻，我们应该遵循进步、保护以及创新的精神团结起来，我们精神的引擎应该点燃全世界，我们应该有个非常公平的竞争的场地跟环境。

Hangzhou also has a special place in the revitalized(复兴)U.S.-China relationship.We're coming up in the 40th anniversary of Henry Kissinger's historic visit here, the first tentative step toward re-establishing diplomatic relations(建交)between our two great countries.At the time, 40 years ago, the negotiations were all done face to face, secret memos were passed back and forth by hand and if you wanted to look something up you had to actually read a book.There was no internet, no email, no cell phones, no Alibaba and Jack Ma was only around 5 or 6 years old.President Nixon reportedly(据报道)enjoyed his time here at Westlake so much he said Beijing may be China's capitol, but Hangzhou is the country's heart!My Chinese friends also refer to it as Yu Mi Zhi Xiang(land of plenty).杭州是一个很重要的地方，在中美建交的时候扮演了一个很重要的角色。基辛格国务卿访问过中国杭州，当时中美还没有恢复建交，40年之前中美建交的谈判在杭州举行，做了一些秘密的协议。实际上你要读一读历史书才知道过去的这段历史，当时没有移动电话，没有电脑，没有阿里巴巴，当时马云可能才5、6岁那么大吧。尼克松总统在西湖旁边渡过一段非常美好的时光，他说过北京是中国的都城，但是杭州是这个国家的心脏，我的朋友曾经有说过鱼米之乡。

President Nixon's visit here was one of the great diplomatic(外交的)breakthroughs in recent American history.It was a time(before many of you were born)of estrangement(疏远), not cooperation between the United States and China.Our relations were largely defined by the hostilities in Korea and Vietnam, and the conflicts between capitalism(资本主义)and communism(共产主义).It took visionary leadership on both sides of the Pacific to bring these two countries together and so much of that hard work happened right here in Hangzhou.Predictably, we continued to have our differences, and sometimes we still do.But those meetings, over 40 years ago, marked a signal shift in our relationship, from opposition to, at its best, genuine(真正的)cooperation and mutual benefit.But the 1970's were in many other ways a very difficult time in the United States.The Vietnam War sparked tremendous domestic(国内的)upheaval(剧变).Our economy stalled(停止), we were battered by stagflation(经济滞涨), high unemployment and declining living standards.Millions of Americans were ready to close our borders and turn inward.尼克松总统访问杭州可以说是最近美国历史上的一大突破。这是发生在你们出生之前的一段时间，这也说明了中美之间合作的重要性。当时美国的关系跟韩国、中国都是很敌对的，我们认为你们是共产主义者，你们认为我们是资本家。但是因为两国领导人的远见，我们两国走到了一起，很多重大的事件就从杭州开始。可以预言，很多的差异还会继续的弥合，当然现在还有很多的差异。你想40多年前这么大的差异都可以弥合，我们过去从敌对变成了最好的、最真诚的合作伙伴，同时是互利的一个合作关系。

70年代，从很多角度来看都是对美国人来讲是非常艰难的一个时刻。当时的越南战争对我们国家造成了巨大的创伤，同时我们当时是在非常高的生活水平上，但是整个经济滞胀，我们的总统又被暗杀了，当时美国整体的经济模式都遭到了挑战，有人预言说美国要走下坡路了，他们会失去在世界舞台的地位，其实在美国内部来讲的话，我们也关闭了很多的国界线。

But then an interesting thing happened that we have seen in other chapters of our history.Our economy bounced back stronger than ever, thanks in large part to our fundamental belief in the powers of an open marketplace.Maybe it's because we are a nation of immigrants, or maybe it's because we stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, but even during the toughest times, we always believed in the power of freedom and always valued engagement over isolationism.但是发生了一件有意思的事情，可能在美国其他的历史篇章上又看到，发现美国又回到了一个非常好的经济发展渠道上。这可能是有赖于我们很高的雇佣率，很低的失业率，以及很强大的经济基础，既使是在当时最艰难的时刻，我们也一直坚信不已，一个开放的市场是非常重要的，参与是非常重要的。

We welcomed tens of thousands of international students(maybe even some of you or your family members)to our universities, as we continue to do today.Students who return to their home countries armed with uniquely American ideas and approaches, planting their own seeds of innovation and enterprise.We attracted brainpower(智囊团)to the United States, and we still do.Talent helped fuel our economic engine when we needed it the most and became valued and equal members of American society.We created industry clusters(产业集群)where scientists and entrepreneurs could interact and exchange ideas – creating incubators(培养器)for future ideas and future business opportunities – this, too, continues today.The best example and one I am sure you are all familiar with, is Silicon Valley, which not only helped launch the computer revolution but established a certain recipe for success that serves as a model for similar technology hubs(枢纽)throughout the world, from Brooklyn to Beijing.Our commitment to open markets and an open society resulted in a flurry(慌张)of innovation and new technologies that revitalized our economy, ultimately creating some 30 million new jobs.It was innovation, and the entrepreneurial culture that fostered it, that helped drag the United States out of the economic challenges and doldrums(经济不景气)of the 1970's and set up three decades of unprecedented growth and prosperity.我们欢迎成千上万的国际学生来到美国，也许你们某些家庭成员也去过美国的大学学习，现在我们继续欢迎外国的学生，我们有自己独特的思路，美国人有非常强的创业精神，我们美国人到目前为止还是有非常强大的精神力量，我们认为人才是美国经济的基础和引擎，我们也非常坚信社会公民的平等，我们认为企业跟科学家的合作是非常重要的，需要来交换理念，来为未来的业务机会创造一个孵化机会，这样一个理念今天还在持续，我想最好的例子大家可能都知道了，就是硅谷，我们不仅在硅谷出现了大量的电脑的创新，还看到了很多成功的案例，我们可以看到那里已经成为了很多的巨大的一个新技术的发生地，从布鲁克林到北京到充满了我们在硅谷出现的新技术，这样的新技术使得我们经济得以重振，而且产生了三千万的新工作机会，我们企业家的精神得到了在更大一部分的培养，这也直接带领美国走出了1970年的经济困境，而且持续了30年的繁荣。

Now both countries have experienced both enormous growth and change since our modern relationship began 40 years ago.I suspect the pace of change will advance beyond anyone’s comprehension in years to come.And I am guessing the driver will be the development of ideas in health, energy, transportation – just to name a few.So here's the question: is there a central role for innovation in the U.S.-China relationship that speaks to where we want to find ourselves in the future? If so, and I believe there is – then let's get moving!

40年前产生的中美建交之后，我们的经济跟文化都有了巨大的发展，我们都明白这样一种关系对未来是至关重要的，我觉得在这个过程当中，我们需要有解决能源的问题、交通的问题、通讯的问题，这只是其中一部分，我的问题就是创新在中美关系当中重要吗，我们希望未来创新是处于什么个地位，我觉得确实是的，我相信创新是最重要的一点。

In the United States we venerate(尊敬)people like Thomas Edison, who invented the light bulb.Henry Ford, who helped launch the modern automobile industry, John Rockefeller, who revolutionized the oil business, Warren Buffet and investing, Bill Gates and Microsoft, all of them have helped define the American Dream, where you work hard, you think big and ultimately, you enjoy the fruits of your labor.And then there's Jack Ma, who's busy creating what we should probably call the Chinese Dream.He started with one of the slowest internet connections in the world.I hear it used to take Jack all day to download a single page.But if it took all day, he'd wait all day.And slowly but surely he learned how to operate on-line.Pretty soon, he founded China's first internet-based company – China Pages.Today, of course, he's CEO of the Alibaba Group, which brings us all together today with, at least this morning, more than 50-million members.Knowing Jack, it'll probably be 60 million by the time I finish this speech.在美国像爱迪生发明了灯泡，同时福特发明了汽车，诺可菲尔创造了新的石油企业，巴菲特巨大的成功在投资上面，美国人总是有美国之梦，如果你努力工作，你想得远大，最终你就会收获。马云又是一个很好的案例，他创立了我们可以称之为中国之梦，他最开始的时候用得是全球连接最慢的互联网，可能你花一天的时间，马云就下载了一个页面，但是他会等一天来等这个页面，在一个月之后，他就知道如何很快的上网了，很快他居然建立了中国最早一个网络企业，叫中国黄页，后来又建立了中国最大的网络企业叫阿里巴巴，大家都知道，马云是我的一个好朋友，也许我说完话之后，他已经拥有更多的钱了。

So we've all heard stories about entrepreneurs, whether they're Chinese or American.And the environments that produced the success stories all seem to have four basic things in common: One, they encourage free thinking;Two, there is easy access to information and capital(资金);Three, they welcome collaboration;Four, they tolerate failure.我觉得企业创业精神是很重要的，不管是中国美国人都一样的，需要四个基本的素质，首先他们是开放的思路，第二很快得到资金和信息，第三欢迎合作，第四他们能承受失败。

We all need to empower the entrepreneur.We all need more Jack Mas.Although cultures may be different around the world, the entrepreneurial spirit and drive for success is the same wherever you go and we need to protect that.Entrepreneurs require an appetite for risk, capital to fuel their aspirations(愿望), a collaborative environment and respect for the power of ideas.Look at Jack Ma;he took a basic idea and expanded it, he transformed the economic model and created opportunities for millions of new businessmen, not just here in China but around the world.我们都需要推动企业家精神，我们需要更多的马云，可能世界各地文化不同，但是企业家精神是成功的关键，而这种企业家精神在全球各地都是一样的。当然作为企业家，他要有冒险精神，需要有合作精神，并且尊重创意，看一下马云吧，他把一个基础的想法转变成了经济的模型，而且为很多的中小商人创造了巨大的商机，不仅是对中国，对全球的中小企业和商人都创造了伟大的机会。We are all helping to define a new tomorrow for the U.S.-China relationship, the most important relationship today in the world.Just like our leaders did 40 years ago in Hangzhou.Their decisions were almost exclusively about Big Balance of Power politics.Today, our discussions should be about enhancing the quality of life for our citizens, finding cures for human diseases, developing new ways to power our economy and building bridges only made possible by innovators, dreamers and creators …people just like you.I have high hopes, and am terribly optimistic, for our future…Entrepreneurs of the world, it is time to unite!我们都在一起为中美关系的未来创造更好的环境，这是全球最重要的两个大国的关系了。40年前美国也有人来到中国讲到了可能是两大大国之间的平衡，但是现在我们讲的是为我们的人民的生活品质的提高作贡献。对我们的经济寻找新 的方向，建立起桥梁，这种桥梁使得我们创新的企业家和梦想者能够取得更大的成功，我对未来充满的信心，企业家的精神在全球各地都需要联合起来，全世界的企业家团结起来。

On Friendship Few Americans stay put for a lifetime.We move from town to city to suburb, from high school to college in a different state, from a job in one region to a better job elsewhere, from the home where we raise our children to the home where we plan to live in retirement.With each move we are forever making new friends, who become part of our new life at that time.For many of us the summer is a special time for forming new friendships.Today millions of Americans vacation abroad, and they go not only to see new sights but also – in those places where they do not feel too strange – with the hope of meeting new people.No one really expects a vacation trip to produce a close friend.But surely the beginning of a friendship is possible? Surely in every country people value friendship?

They do.The difficulty when strangers from two countries meet is not a lack of appreciation of friendship, but different expectations about what constitutes friendship and how it comes into being.In those European countries that Americans are most likely to visit, friendship is quite sharply distinguished from other, more casual relations, and is differently related to family life.For a Frenchman, a German or an Englishman friendship is usually more particularized and carries a heavier burden of commitment.美国人几乎没有哪一个一辈子不挪动地方。我们由小镇搬到城市，又搬到郊区，从中学到另一个州的大学，由一个地区的某个工作岗位换到别的地方的更好的职位，从把孩子养大的家，搬到打算退休以后安度晚年的家。每一次搬家，我们都不断地结交新朋友，他们成为我们新生活的一部分。

对许多人来说，夏季是建立新友谊的特殊时间。如今，上百万的美国人到国外渡假。实际上没有人指望一次旅行的结果会产生一个密友。但是一次旅行使友谊开始总是有可能的吧！每个国家的人都很重视友谊吧！

他们确实都重视友谊。来自不同国度，又从未见过面的两个人相遇之后，困难不在于他们不珍视友谊，而在于他们对于友谊所包含的内容以及友谊如何产生有不同的看法。在美国人最有可能去旅游的那几个欧洲国家，友谊与其他更为随便的人际关系有很大的区别，在这几个国家里，友谊介入家庭生活的程度也各不相同。对于法国人、德国人或是英国人来说，友谊一般包含更为特殊的内容，承担更多的义务。But as we use the word, “friend” can be applied on a wide range of relationships – to someone one has known for a few weeks in a new place, to a close business associate, to a childhood playmate, to a man or woman, to a trusted confidant(密友).There are real differences among those relations for Americans – a friendship may be superficial(表面的), casual, situational or deep and enduring.But to a European, who sees only our surface behavior, the differences are not clear.As they see it, people known and accepted temporarily, casually, flow in and out of Americans’ homes with little ceremony and often with little personal commitment.They may be parents of the children’s friends, house guests of neighbors, members of a committee, business associates from another town or even another country.Coming as a guest into an American home, the European visitor finds no visible landmarks.The atmosphere is relaxed.Most people, old and young, are called by first names.Who, then, is a friend? Even simple translation from one language to another is difficult.“You see,” a Frenchman explains, “if I were to say to you in France, ‘This is my good friend,’ that person would not be as close to me as someone about whom I said only, ‘This is my friend.’ Anyone about whom I have to say more is really less.”

我们把朋友这个词用于广泛的人际关系——包括在一个新的地方刚刚认识几个星期的人，关系密切的同事，孩提时期的玩耍伙伴，男人或女人，直至心腹至交。这些关系对美国人来说实际上还是有差别的，友情既可以是肤浅的、一般的、随情况而变的，也可以是深厚而持久的。但对于只看到我们表面举止的欧洲人来说，这种区别就不明显。

在他们眼里，那些一时认识的人和即兴结识的人，从美国人的家里进进出出，不讲什么礼节，往往也不承担什么个人义务。这些人可以是孩子朋友的父母，邻居家暂住在自己家里的客人，某个委员会的成员，从另外一个城市甚至外国来的商业伙伴。到美国人家里做客的欧洲人，看不到有什么明显的既成规矩，气氛轻松、无论老少，多数人都是互相直呼其名。

那么，什么样的人才是朋友呢？

‚朋友‛一词甚至从一种语言简单地翻译成另一种都是难的。‚你知道，‛一位法国人解释说，‚在法国，我要是对你说‘这是我的好朋友’，他其实没有我只介绍‘这是我的朋友’的人更亲密。越是要把关系说得亲密的人，关系却越是疏远一些。‛

In France, as in many European countries, friends generally are of the same sex, and friendship is seen as basically a relationship between men.Frenchwomen laugh at the idea that “women can’t be friends”, but they also admit sometimes that for women “it’s a different thing”.And many French people doubt the possibility of a friendship between a man and a woman.There is also the kind of relationship within a group – men and women who have worked together for a long time, who may be very close, sharing great loyalty and warmth of feeling.They may call one another copains – a word that in English becomes “friends” but has more the feeling of “pals” or “buddies”.In French eyes this is not friendship, although two members of such a group may well be friends.For the French, friendship is a one-to-one relationship that demands a keen awareness of the other person’s intellect, temperament(性情)and particular interest.A friend is someone who draws out your own best qualities, with whom you sparkle and become more of whatever the friendship draws upon.Our political philosophy assumes more depth, appreciation of a play becomes sharper, taste in food or wine is accentuated, enjoyment of a sport is intensified(加强的).And French friendships are compartmentalized(区分).A man may play chess with a friend for thirty years without knowing his political opinions, or he may talk politics with him for as long a time without knowing about his personal life.Different friends fill different niches in each person’s life.These friendships are not made part of family life.A friend is not expected to spend evenings being nice to children or courteous(有礼貌的)to a deaf grandmother.These duties, also serious and enjoined, are primarily for relatives.Men who are friends may meet in a café.Intellectual fiends may meet in larger groups for evenings of conversation.Working people may meet at the little bistro(小酒馆)where they drink and talk, far from the family.Marriage does not affect such friendships;wives do not have to be taken into account.In the past in France, friendships of this kind seldom were open to any but intellectual women.Since most women’s lives centered on their homes, their warmest relations with other women often went back to their girlhood.The special relationship of friendship is based on what the French value most – on the mind, on compatibility(兼容性)of outlook, on vivid awareness of some chosen area of life.Friendship heightens the sense of each person’s inpiduality.Other relationships commanding as great loyalty and devotion have a different meaning.In World War II the first resistance groups formed in Paris were built on the foundations of les copains.But significantly, as time went on these little groups, whose lives rested in one another’s hands, called themselves “families”.Where each had a total responsibility for all, it was kinship ties that provided the mode.And even today such ties, crossing every line of class and personal interest, remain binding on(对…有约束力)the survivors of these small secret bands.像许多欧洲国家一样，法国人也认为朋友一般指同性，而且友谊主要指男人间的人际关系。对于‚女人之间不可能成为朋友‛的观点，法国妇女嗤之以鼻，不过她们有时也承认，‚女人间的友谊是另外一回事‛。许多法国人对男人与女人之间是否会有友谊感到怀疑。还有一种群体内的人际关系——包括男女在内的一些人在一起工作多年，可能关系不错、彼此信任、感情融洽。他们彼此称为法语里的copains，这个词译成英语就是‚朋友‛，不过更具‚哥们‛或‚姐妹‛的感情色彩。在法国人的眼里，这不是友谊，当然这个群体里的某两个人之间完全可以成为朋友。

对法国人来说，友谊是一种一对一的人际关系，要求双方了解彼此的智力、性格以及特殊的兴趣。朋友是能把你最优秀的品质发挥出来的人。和他在一起，你才气横溢，无论你们的友谊源于哪方面，你在这方面会变得更加充实。你对政治的见解会深化，你对戏剧的鉴赏力会更加敏锐，你对美食和美酒的品尝会更尽兴，你对某项运动的爱好会加强。

法国式的友谊有具体的分工。一个人可能与一位朋友下了三十年的棋而不知道他的政治观点，也可能与他谈论了三十年的政治，而不了解他的私人生活。不同的朋友在每个人的生活中有不同的作用。他们不介入家庭生活。而必尽的义务主要由家属承担。几个男性朋友会聚在咖啡馆里；有学识的朋友会发起更大的聚会谈上数个晚上；工人们会聚在远离家庭的小酒吧里，喝酒、闲侃。这种友谊不受婚姻的影响，而且建立友谊时不必考虑妻子的情况。在从前的法国，这种友谊只接纳知识妇女，很少接纳其他妇女。因为大多数妇女的生活是以家庭为中心，她们与其他女性的亲密关系通常是从少女时代就建立起来的。友谊这种特殊的关系的基础是法国人最为珍视的东西——是思想，是观点的一致，是对生活中某一方面的鲜明的意识。

In Germany, in contrast with France, friendship is much more articulately(清晰地)a matter of feeling.Adolescents, boys and girls form deeply sentimental attachments, walk and talk together – not so much to polish their wits as to share their hopes and fears and dreams, to form a common front against the world of school and family and to join in a kind of mutual discovery of each other’s and their own inner life.Within the family, the closest relationship over a lifetime is between brothers and sisters.Outside the family, men and women find in their closest friends of the same sex the devotion of a sister, the loyalty of a brother.Appropriately, in Germany friends usually are brought into the family.Children call their father’s and their mothers friends “uncle” and “aunt”.Between French friends, who have chosen each other for the congeniality(意气相投)of their point of view, lively disagreement and sharpness of argument are the breath of life.But for Germans, whose friendships are based on mutuality of feeling, deep disagreement on any subject that matters to both is regarded as a tragedy.Like ties of kinship, ties of friendship are meant to be irrevocably(不能取消的)binding.Young Germans who come to the United States have great difficulty in establishing such friendships with Americans.We view friendship more tentatively, subject to changes in intensity as people move, change their jobs, marry, or discover new interests.与法国截然不同，在德国，友谊更明确地说是个感情问题。少男少女之间建立起深厚的感情，他们一起散步，一起聊天。这一切不是为了提高自己的智慧，而是相互分享彼此的愿望、忧患和梦想，共同对付学校和家庭组成的世界，发现彼此的内心世界。家庭之内，一个人一生最亲密的关系是兄弟姐妹之间的关系。家庭之外，同性挚友之间像姐妹一样亲密，像兄弟一样真诚。大致说来，在德国，朋友经常被带到家里。孩子们称呼父母的朋友为叔叔和阿姨。观点相投而成为朋友的法国人之间，鲜明的分歧和激烈的争论是这种关系所不可少的。但是德国人的友谊是建立在相互感情的基础之上的。对他们来说，如果在双方都认为重要的问题上亲生了尖锐的分歧，那就是极大的不幸。朋友关系与亲缘关系一样具有绝对的约束力。来到美国的年轻的德国人，很难与美国人建立起这样的友谊关系。我们不把友谊看得那样一成不变，友谊的深浅随着人们的搬迁、调换工作、婚嫁，或兴趣的改变而变化。

English friendships follow still a different pattern.Their basis is shared activity.Activities at different stages of life may be of very different kinds – discovering a common interest in school, serving together in the armed forces, taking part in a foreign mission, staying in the same country house during a crisis.In the midst of the activity, whatever it may be, people fall into step – sometimes two men or two women, sometimes two couples, sometimes three people – and find that they walk or play a game or tell stories or serve on a tiresome and exacting committee with the same easy anticipation(希望，预感)of what each will do day by day or in some critical situation.Americans who have made English friends comment that, even years later, “you can take up just where you left off.” Meeting after a long interval, friends are like a couple who begin to dance again when the orchestra strikes up after a pause.English friendships are formed outside the family circle, but they are not, as in Germany, contrapuntal to the family nor are they, as in France, separated from the family.And a break in an English friendship comes not necessarily as a result of some irreconcilable difference of viewpoint or feeling but instead as a result of misjudgment, where one friend seriously misjudges how the other will think or feel or act, so that suddenly they are out of step.英国式的友谊模式又不尽相同。这些友谊的基础是共同的活动。人生不同阶段的活动是不同的——在学校发现共同的兴趣，同在部队服役，参加同一个外交使团，在某场危机中共同暂住在一个农舍。在活动中（不管是什么活动），人们开始步调一致（有时是两个男人，有时是两个女人，有时是两对夫妇，有时是三个人），他们发现，无论是走路、做游戏、讲故事或是在同一居委会任职，他们都觉得能很自然地估计出每个人平时如何行事，在紧急情况下如何反应。与英国人交过朋友的美国人评论说，即使是多年以后，“你的友谊也可以在哪里中断就在哪里重新开始。”长期没有往来又重新见面的朋友，就好像一对伴侣，在乐队停止演奏时暂时分开，一旦乐曲一响，就又开始翩翩起舞。英国式的友谊建立在家庭之外，但是不像德国那样对朋友的家庭承担义务，也不像法国那样把友谊与家庭截然分开。英式友情的破裂不一定是因为观点产生了分歧或是感情发生了变化，相反是因为判断错误所致，一方严重错误地判断对方的思想、感情或行为，分歧就由此而产生。

What, then, is friendship? Looking at these different styles, including our own, each of which is related to a whole way of life, are there common elements? There is the recognition that friendship, in contrast with kinship(亲属关系), invokes freedom of choice.A friend is someone who chooses and is chosen.Related to this is the sense each friend gives the other of being a special inpidual, on whatever grounds this recognition is based.And between friends there is inevitably a kind of equality of give-and-take.These similarities make the bridge between societies possible, and the American’s characteristic openness to different styles of relationship makes it possible for him to find new friend abroad with him he feels at home.那么，到底什么是友谊呢？既然友谊的模式——包括我们自己的——各不相同，且每种模式完全与一定的生活方式相关，那么还有共同之处吗？不同模式的友谊的共同点，是都承认友谊与亲缘关系的不同之处是能够自由选择，朋友能够选择，也能被别人选择。与此相关的是，朋友之间彼此使对方感到与众不同，无论这种感觉的依据是什么。此外，朋友之间必要要有来有往、互谅互让。有了这些相同之处，不同的社会之间才能相互沟通；美国人的特点是不拒绝其它模式的人际关系，因此，他们在国外就有可能与那些在一起感到自在的人交上朋友。

We Need a Dug-out Canoe to Navigate the Net In 1953, when the Internet was not even a technological twinkle(闪烁)in the eye, the philosopher Isaiah Berlin famously pided thinkers into two categories: the hedgehog(刺猬)and the fox: “The fox knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing.”

Hedgehog writers, argued Berlin, see the world through the prism(棱镜)of a single overriding(高于一切的)idea, whereas foxes dart(疾驶，飞奔)hither(向这里)and thither(到那里), gathering inspiration from the widest variety of experiences and sources.Marx, Nietzsche and Plato were hedgehogs;Aristotle, Shakespeare and Berlin himself were foxes.Today, feasting on the anarchic(无政府的), ubiquitous(无处不在的), limitless and uncontrolled information cornucopia that is the web, we are all foxes.We browse and scavenge(除去)thoughts and influences, picking up what we want, discarding(抛弃)the rest, collecting, linking, hunting and gathering our information, social life and entertainment.The new Apple iPad is merely the latest step in the fusion(融合)of the human mind and the Internet.This way of thinking is a direct threat to ideology(意识形态).Indeed, perhaps the ultimate(最终的)expression of hedgehog-thinking is totalitarian(集权主义者)and fundamentalist(原教旨主义者).The hedgehogs rightly fear the foxes.Edge(www.xiexiebang.com), a website dedicated(专用的)to ideas and technology, recently asked scores of philosophers, scientists and scholars a simple but fundamental question: “How is the internet changing the way you think?” The responses were astonishingly varied, yet most agreed that the web had profoundly(深刻地)affected the way we gather our thoughts, if not the way we use that information.For both better and worse, fox-thinking is dominant(占优势的).At its worst, it means shorter attention spans(集中注意力的时限), shallower(浅的)memories, fragmented(片段的), unsustained(无支撑的)argument, the undermining(淘空)of intellectual property rights(知识产权)and a tendency to mistake anecdote(轶事)for fact.At its best, the Internet represents an intellectual revolution, fostering(养育)free collaboration as never before, with dramatically improved access to boundless information, the great store of the world’s knowledge just a few keystrokes and clicks away.The nimble(敏捷的)Internet fox is both an extraordinary time-saver, nipping from one place to another on instant mind-journeys that would once have taken years.But he is also a prodigious(惊人的)time-waster, wandering down distracting(分散注意力的)avenues of celebrity gossip, pornography(色情文学), invective(恶言谩骂)and the minutiae(细枝末节)of other peoples’ lives.The Internet is changing the very nature of human memory.Erudition(博学)and experience, the store of knowledge built up by an inpidual over years, is becoming less important than the ability to focus and edit: extracting(提取)information from the machine has superseded(取代)the ability to recall it unaided.In Internet-driven thought, the point is not on what you know, but what you can discover.We do not watch or absorb the Internet, but scour(搜索)it for what is useful.This requires a particular sort of mind, and as the digital world continues its colonization(殖民地化)of our own, fox-like minds will increasingly dominate the workplace.As David Dalrymple of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, puts it: “The bottom line is that how well an employee can focus might now be more important than how knowledgeable he is.” How the Internet teaches us to think depends on whether we treat it as a primary school playground, a place for puerile(幼稚的)fights, shallow entertainment, chatter and self-absorption(聚精会神), or a forum(论坛)of higher learning, packed with delights and discovery, offering unprecedented(空前的)opportunities for exchanging ideas.Most of us, of course, treat it as both simultaneously.Reading the web usefully requires a new form of literacy(读写能力), the ability to sift(筛选)from the abundance of information what is helpful from what is pointless or merely distracting.Many feel overloaded by the onslaught(猛攻)of information: too many websites, too many messages, a deafening(极喧闹的)chorus of tweets(小鸟叫声)and texts.Internet thinking is not just about browsing and gathering, but choosing and rejecting.The Internet fox knows many things, but while hungrily searching tit-bits(珍闻)from every corner, he must also know what is indigestible(难消化的), what is nourishing(有营养的)and what is poisonous.A few hundred years ago literacy was rare and extremely valuable.Today anyone with an Internet connection and a keyboard is a publisher.A generation ago knowledge had to be actively sought out;today we are bombarded(被轰击)with information, much of it bad, biased or simply irrelevant.The fundamental way we think has not changed, but the way we access information, and the sheer volume of that information has altered in ways that are both inspiring and daunting(令人气馁的).Chipping away(凿下碎片)the rotten wood is, perhaps, the most fundamental skill for the online brain: the discipline of allocating(分配)attention, filtering(过滤), questioning.This is where the Indian canoe comes in.According to the science historian George Dyson, the Indians of the Pacific North West had two, very different methods of boatbuilding.The Aleuts, living on treeless islands, constructed kayaks from what they could find on the beaches, skins stretched across a framework of driftwood(浮木).The Tlingit, by contrast, cut down huge trees, and hollowed(挖空)out an entire canoe, cutting and burning away the excess wood.“We used to be kayak builders, collecting all available fragments(碎片)of information,” writes Dyson.“Now, we have to learn to become dug-out canoe builders, discarding unnecessary information to reveal the shape of knowledge hidden within.” As the intellectual torrent(知识的洪流)of the Internet swells with(膨胀，充满)each technological advance, there is only one creature who can be confident of(确信)staying afloat: the fox, paddling(划桨)in the dug-out canoe.On Becoming a Scientist One normally becomes a scientist through a series of apprenticeships(学徒), pursuing research in laboratories directed by established scientists.My own scientific mentors were Jacques Fresco and Paul Doty at Harvard, where I learned not only technical skills but also how to think and function as a scientist.Both from them, and by making my own mistakes, I learned how to identify important problems, how to think critically, and how to design effective research strategies.Because so much of one's scientific future is shaped by early experiences, it is critical that beginning scientists select their mentors wisely.Unfortunately, what constitutes a “good” choice is not always obvious.Here I offer some personal advice to help young scientists make these tough decisions wisely.The exact project pursued for a Ph.D.degree is not nearly as important as finding the best place for learning how to push forward the frontier of knowledge as an independent investigator.My first piece of advice for graduate students is to begin research training in a laboratory led by a person with high scientific and ethical standards.It is by talking to people in that lab or those who have previously trained there, and by consulting other scientists in the same field, that one can gain this important insight.It is also important to find an adviser who will pay close attention to your development as a scientist.Brilliant scientists sometimes make poor mentors.Often, an established leader who has no more than about a dozen people to manage can best nurture a creative, exciting, and supportive place to work.But carrying out research with an outstanding new professor with a very small group can frequently provide even better training.Students enter graduate school both to learn how to do science well and to discover where their talents and interests lie.Success at either task requires that they be empowered to create new approaches and to generate new ideas.In my experience, beginning scientists will only gain the confidence needed to confront the unknown successfully by making discoveries through experiments of their own design.The best research advisers will therefore provide their graduate students with enough guidance to prevent them from wasting time on nonproductive pursuits, while giving them the freedom to innovate and to learn from their own mistakes.In my field of biology, two apprenticeships are standard for beginning scientists: first while earning a Ph.D.degree and then in a second laboratory in a postdoctoral position.The choice of a postdoctoral laboratory is best made with a long-term career plan in mind.Scientists at this stage should intentionally try to choose a laboratory where they can acquire skills that complement those they already have.For example, a student whose Ph.D.thesis gave her strong skills as a yeast geneticist might choose to do postdoctoral research with an expert protein biochemist, planning to later use a combination of powerful genetic and biochemical tools to attack a biological problem in an area where very few scientists have the same abilities.But success as an independent scientist will require much more than technical skills.It is critical to be able to design research strategies that are ambitious enough to be important and exciting, innovative enough to make unique contributions likely, and nevertheless have a good chance of producing valuable results.An enormous number of different experiments are possible, but only a tiny proportion will be really worthwhile.Choosing well requires great thought and creativity, and it involves taking risks.Senior scientists have the responsibility of maintaining a system that provides talented young scientists with the opportunity to succeed in whatever career they choose.My next editorial addresses the importance of ensuring that innovation and risk-taking are rewarded for those pursuing a life of independent research.Also, a new series in Science Careers highlights conversations with audacious scientists who give their own advice about selecting institutions, mentors, and projects.

第二篇：英语课文翻译

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第一单元

与自然力量抗争 课文A 就拿拿破仑和希特勒两人来说吧，他们所向披靡，便以为自己战

冰雪卫士

奈拉·B·史密斯

1812年，法国皇帝拿破仑·波拿巴率大军入侵俄罗斯。他准备好俄罗斯人民会为保卫祖国而奋勇抵抗。

他准备好在俄罗斯广袤的国土上要经过长途跋涉才能进军首都莫斯科。但他没有料到在莫斯科他会遭遇劲敌——俄罗斯阴冷凄苦的寒冬。

1941年，纳粹德国元首阿道夫·希特勒进攻当时被称作苏联的俄罗斯。希特勒的军事实力堪称无敌。

他的战争机器扫除了欧洲绝大部分地区的抵抗。希特勒希望速战速决，但是，就像在他之前的拿破仑一样，他得到的是痛苦的教训。仍是俄罗斯的冬天助了苏维埃士兵一臂之力。拿破仑发起的战役

1812年春，拿破仑在俄国边境屯兵60万。这些士兵受过良好训练，作战力强，装备精良。这支军队被称为大军。拿破仑对马到成功充满自信，预言要在5个星期内攻下俄国。

不久，拿破仓的大军渡过涅曼河进入俄国。拿破仑期盼着的速决速胜迟迟没有发生。令他吃惊的是，俄国人并不奋起抵抗。相反．他们一路东撒，沿途焚毁庄稼和民居。大军紧追不舍，但它的长驱直入很快由于粮草运输缓慢而停顿下来。

到了8月，法俄两军在斯摩棱斯克交战，这一战役中，双方各有上万人阵亡。可是俄国人仍能在自己的国土上继续后撤。拿破仑未能取得决定性的胜利。此刻他面临着一个重要抉择。是继续追击俄国军队，还足把军队驻扎在斯摩棱斯克，在那儿度过将到的冬天?

拿破仑孤注一掷，决定向远在448公里之外的莫斯科进发。1 812年9月7日，法俄两军在莫斯科以西112公里外的鲍罗季诺激战，夜幕降临时，3万名法国士兵以及4万4千名俄国士兵或伤或亡，倒在了战场上。

俄国军队再次撤往安全之处。拿破仑顺利进入莫斯科，然而，对该市的占领成为毫无意义的胜利。俄国人弃城而走。法国人进城不久，一场熊熊大火烧毁丁整个城市的三分之二。拿破仑向亚历山大一世提出停战，但沙皇深知他可以等待时机：“且让俄罗斯的严冬为我们战斗吧。”

拿破仑很快意识到，他无法在冬天向远在莫斯科的军队供应粮草、提供御寒衣物和宿营之地。1812年10月，他命令大军撤出莫斯科。

法军的撤离成为一场噩梦。俄国人出没于田野与森林，采用打了就跑的战术，向法国人发起攻击。刚出莫斯科城，气温就降到摄氏零下4度。11月3目降了初雪。困乏的马匹倒地而死。大炮陷入雪中。装备只得被用作燃料焚烧。士兵们染病冻死。法国士兵拖着脚步行进，一路上留下无数死尸。

正当俄罗斯军队集聚兵力之时，法国人却不得不逃离俄国，以避免注定的失败。在别列兹那河，俄国人焚烧了涨水的河道上的桥粱，差点将后撤的法军团于河边。侥幸的是，拿破仑居然突击造起两座桥。成千上万法国士兵得以逃脱，但却损失了5万人。渡过别列兹拿河，溃不成军的幸存者一瘸一拐地向维尔纽行进。

拿破仑发兵60万进入俄国，只有不到10万士兵返回。元气大伤的法国军队在欧洲继续西撤。不久，英国、奥地利、俄国以及普鲁士组成强大的联盟，攻击这些 1 • •

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散兵游勇。1814年3月，巴黎被攻占。拿破仑退位去过流放生活，他缔造的帝国随之灭亡。希特勒的入侵

到1941年初，纳粹德国元首阿道夫·希特勒已经控制了欧洲大部分地区。希特勒的德意志帝国的东部与苏联毗邻。1941年6月22曰，希特勒不宣而战，入侵苏联，发动了历史上规模最大的一场陆地战役。希特勒自信能速战速决，预计这一战役不会超过3个月。他计划采用征服了欧洲其余地区的闪电式战略。入侵汁划包含三大目标：向列宁格勒与莫斯科进攻，并横扫乌克兰。

苏联领导人约瑟夫·斯大林被打了个措手不及，他指示全国人民在德国入侵者到来之前实行“焦土”政策。农场和工厂被焚烧毁坏，或被弄得无法运转。在入侵的最初10个星期内，德国人一路东进。俄国人伤亡人数多达一百多万。

在北方，德国人包围了列宁格勒。尽管忍